Preamble xx Abbreviations xxiii About the Companion Website xxiv 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Energy Supply in General 1 1.2 Electrochemical and Non-electrochemical Energy Technologies 3 1.3 Basic Properties of Batteries: Similarities and Differences 5 1.4 Bridging Time 7 1.5 Comparison of Battery Technologies 9 1.6 Applications and Integration of Batteries into Overall Systems 10 References 11 Tasks 11 2 Electrochemical Basics 13 2.1 Basic Electrochemical Terms 14 2.

2 Electrochemical Thermodynamics 19 2.3 Electrochemical Kinetics 24 2.4 Equivalent Circuit Diagrams 37 2.5 Side Reactions 41 References 42 Tasks 43 3 Charging and Discharging Cells and Batteries 47 3.1 Definitions of Capacity and Internal Resistance 48 3.2 Terms Used for Charging and Discharging Batteries 50 3.3 Discharging and Charging the Electrodes of a Cell 55 3.4 Series Connection of Electrodes - Interactions Between Electrodes 61 3.

5 Discharging and Charging Electrodes in a Cell 62 3.6 Effects of a Short Circuit in a Cell Connected in Series 71 3.7 Fault Propagation, Parallel Battery Strings, and More 72 References 72 Tasks 72 4 Structure of Electrodes, Design of Cells, and Complete Battery Systems 75 4.1 Electrochemical Requirements for the Structure of Active Masses 76 4.2 Structure of Cells 81 4.3 Combined Ion and Electron Conductivity of the Electrodes 87 4.4 Cell Containers and Battery Systems 88 References 90 Tasks 90 5 Thermal Properties of Cells and Batteries 93 5.1 Inhomogeneous Heat Capacity and Anisotropic Heat Conduction 94 5.

2 Heat Generation 95 5.3 Heat Exchange with the Environment 99 5.4 Effect on Temperature 101 5.5 Determination of Thermal Parameters 103 References 103 Task 103 6 Ageing Processes and Service Life of Batteries and Cells 105 6.1 Classification of Aging Processes 106 6.2 Service Life 107 6.3 Limits of the Service Life 113 6.4 Lifetime Prediction 114 References 116 Tasks 117 7 State of X Definitions and Calculations 119 7.

1 Background 119 7.2 State of Charge, Depth of Discharge, State of Energy 120 7.3 State of Health and State of Function 127 7.4 State of Safety 129 References 129 Task 130 8 Battery Models 131 8.1 Classification, Use, and Limitations of Models 131 8.2 Equivalent Circuit Diagram Models 133 8.3 Models with Parameters Independent of State of Charge: The Shepherd Model 138 8.4 Models with State of Charge-Dependent Parameters 140 8.

5 Simulation Process 142 8.6 Comparison of Models 143 8.7 Modeling Larger Systems 144 References 145 Further Reading 145 Tasks 146 9 Determination of Parameters 147 9.1 Definitions 147 9.2 Determination by Physicochemical Methods 148 9.3 Open-Circuit Voltage Curves 151 9.4 Internal Resistance Determination with Current or Voltage Pulses 152 9.5 Short-Circuit Current 155 9.

6 Parameterization for the Randles Model Using Pulse Currents (Measurement in the Time Domain) 156 9.7 Parameter Determination by Measuring the Impedance Spectrum (Measurement in the Frequency Domain) 157 9.8 Measurement of the AC Resistance 158 9.9 Parameterization of the Randles Model Across All Operating States 159 References 160 Further Reading 161 Tasks 161 10 Battery Diagnostics and Analytics 163 10.1 Overview of Methods 163 10.2 Evaluation of Changes in Electrical Parameters 164 10.3 Electrochemical Analysis Methods 165 10.4 Chemical and Spectroscopic Methods - Postmortem Analysis Methods 169 10.

5 In Situ Analysis Procedures 175 10.6 Summary 176 References 176 Tasks 177 11 Overview of Battery Systems 179 11.1 Physicochemical Data and Characteristics 179 11.2 Investment and Operating Costs 184 11.3 Market Structure 184 11.4 Availability of Information 185 11.5 Level of Standardization 185 Further Reading 186 12 Lead-Acid Batteries 187 12.1 Introduction and Economic Significance 188 12.

2 Electrochemistry 188 12.3 Other Electrochemical Reactions 199 12.4 Active Materials 204 12.5 Electrolyte 210 12.6 Current Collectors, Grids 213 12.7 Manufacturing Process and Other Components for the Production of Cells or Blocks 216 12.8 Current Inhomogeneity 221 12.9 Acid Stratification 222 12.

10 Design and Design Differences for Various Applications 225 12.11 Properties 229 12.12 Charging and Charging Characteristics 237 12.13 Aging Effects 247 12.14 Corrosion of the Positive Grid and Connector Lead, Negative Terminals and Intercell Connectors 252 12.15 Corrosion of the Intercell Connectors 258 12.16 Operating Strategies and Design Implications for Lead-Acid Batteries 260 12.17 Determination of Battery States 262 12.

18 Safety 264 12.19 Battery Problems 267 References 268 Further Reading 271 Tasks 271 13 Lithium-Ion Batteries 275 13.1 Introduction and Economic Significance 276 13.2 Electrochemistry 277 13.3 Active Materials 282 13.4 Electrolyte 289 13.5 Solid-Electrolyte Interface and Its Significance for Lithium-Ion Batteries 293 13.6 Current Collectors 294 13.

7 Production of Electrodes 295 13.8 Separators 296 13.9 Safety Measures 297 13.10 Types of Lithium-Ion Batteries 299 13.11 Dimensioning of Cells and Design Differences for Different Applications 304 13.12 Properties 308 13.13 Internal Resistance Measurement 310 13.14 Charging and Charging Characteristics 311 13.

15 Aging Effects 313 13.16 Influence of Calendar and Cyclic Aging and Modeling 319 13.17 Battery Management Systems and Battery Operating Strategies 323 13.18 Determination of Battery States and Parameters 331 13.19 Safety 333 13.20 Causes and Test Conditions for Thermal Runaway and Thermal Propagation 339 13.21 Thermal Runaway 343 13.22 Thermal Propagation 348 13.

23 Safety Engineering 353 13.24 Further Battery Problems 354 References 356 Further Reading 358 Tasks 359 14 Other Battery Technologies 361 14.1 Alkaline Nickel Batteries 362 14.2 Zinc-Air Batteries 369 14.3 Redox-Flow Batteries 372 14.4 High-Temperature Batteries 374 14.5 Lithium Solid-State Electrolyte Batteries 376 14.6 Lithium-Sulfur Batteries 378 14.

7 Lithium-Air Batteries 381 14.8 Sodium-Air Batteries 382 14.9 Sodium-Ion Batteries 383 14.10 Ultracapacitors and Hybrid Batteries 384 References 386 Tasks 387 15 Overview of Applications 389 15.1 General Remarks 389 15.2 Use of Battery 391 15.3 State of Charge and Remaining Capacity 394 15.4 Efficiency 394 15.

5 Safety and Environmentally Friendly Handling of Batteries 396 15.6 Subdivision into Application Areas 397 References 399 Task 399 16 Starter Batteries for Vehicles (Starting, Lighting, Ignition -- SLI) 401 16.1 Definition 401 16.2 Requirements for the Battery 402 16.3 Choice of Battery Technology 407 16.4 Operation and Design 409 16.5 Monitoring of the Battery 411 16.6 Other 411 Reference 412 Tasks 412 17 Batteries for Electromobility 413 17.

1 Definition 413 17.2 Requirements for the Battery 414 17.3 Choice of Battery Technology 418 17.4 Structure of the Battery System 419 17.5 Design and Operation 420 17.6 Monitoring the Battery 424 17.7 Other Aspects 425 References 426 Tasks 426 18 Traction Batteries for Material Handling 427 18.1 Industrial Trucks for Material Handling 427 18.

2 Small Traction Batteries 436 References 437 19 Stationary Applications of Batteries 439 19.1 Standby Parallel Operation for Emergency Power Supply and UPS Systems 440 19.2 Diesel Start for Emergency Power Supply Systems 453 19.3 Batteries for Balancing Electricity Demand and Supply Over Time 455 19.4 Batteries for Stabilizing the Energy Supply System 462 References 464 Task 465 20 Batteries for Portable Applications 469 20.1 Definition 469 20.2 Requirements for the Battery 470 20.3 Choice of Battery Technology 472 20.

4 Design and Operation 472 20.5 Monitoring the Batteries 474 20.6 Other Aspects 474 References 475 Tasks 475 Appendix A Overview of Terms 477 A.1 Galvanic Elements 477 A.2 Cells, Blocks, Modules, and Batteries 477 A.3 Reactions for Energy Conversion 478 A.4 Terms Used to Describe Electrochemical Reactions 479 A.5 Components of Galvanic Elements 482 A.

6 Characteristics of Cells and Batteries 483 A.7 Operating Modes (According to DIN EN 50272-2) 486 A.8 State Variables 487 Appendix B Safe and Environmentally Friendly Handling of Batteries 489 B.1 General Information 489 B.2 Electrical Safety 490 B.3 Fire Protection 493 B.4 Explosion Protection 494 B.5 Requirements for Site of Installation and Transportation 498 B.

6 Environmental Impact and Dispo.