Preface Acknowledgments 1 Introduction to Structural Equation Modeling What Is Structural Equation Modeling? 1 Basics of SEM Input: The Covariance Matrix 2 Correlations Between Constructs Is SEM Causal Modeling? 6 A Confirmatory Approach to SEM 7 Theory Should Lead Conceptualization 8 Assumptions of SEM 8 SEM Software 9 Understanding Diagram Symbols 9 Independent vs. Dependent Latent Variables 11 How to Measure an Unobserved Construct 11 Greek Notation and SEM 13 2 Data Screening, Assessing Reliability, Validity, and Identification 17 Data Screening 17 Screening for Impermissible Values in the Data 19 How Do I Assess If I Have Missing Data? 21 How Do I Address Missing Data? 23 Assessing Reliability 25 Identification with SEM Models 29 How Do I Calculate the Degrees of Freedom? 30 What Do I Do if My Model Is Under-Identified? 32 Sample Size: How Much Is Enough? 33 Understanding the Validity of Measures 33 3 Understanding the AMOS Program 36 Overview of the AMOS Graphics Window 36 AMOS Functions Listed as Icons in Pinned Ribbon 38 Tips to Using AMOS More Efficiently 53 Quick Reference to AMOS Functions 59 4 Measurement Model Analysis 62 Introduction to Confirmatory Factor Analysis 62 How Is a CFA Different From an EFA? 63 Interpretation of Factor Loadings 64 Setting the Metric 65 Model Fit and Fit Statistics 65 Modification Indices 68 CFA Example in AMOS 71 Addressing Missing Data in AMOS ?? Assessing Convergent and Discriminant Validity of Your Measures 83 If I Have a Weak Factor Loading, Should I Drop It? 87 How to Calculate Composite Reliability 87 How to use AI to Quickly Assess the Validity of your Data 87 What If I Have a Standardized Factor Loading Greater Than 1? 88 How Do I Report My CFA Results? 89 How to use AI to Generate CFA Tables for a Publication ?? Measurement Model Invariance Across Groups 90 Full vs. Partial Metric Invariance 98 How Do I Know Which Parameter to Free in a Partial Invariance Test? 98 Common Method Bias 102 What If My Test for Common Method Bias Is Significant? 108 What if My Common Method Bias Test Is Non-Significant? 109 What Is a Second Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis Model? 109 Reflective vs. Formative Indicators 110 Potential Identification Problems with Formative Indicators 113 Dependent Relationships with Formative Constructs 115 Higher Order Formative Construct Example 116 How Do I Present the Result of My Higher Order Formative Model? 122 Error Messages in AMOS 122 5 Path and Full Structural Models 128 Path Analysis 128 Can I Use a Correlation Matrix as My Data Input? 133 Full Structural Model Analysis 137 How Do I Report My Full Structural Model Results? 142 How to use AI to Present Structural Model Results ?? Using Specification Search to Aid in Model Trimming and Fit 143 What Are Alternative Models, and Why Should I Be Concerned With Them? 146 How Do I Add a Control Variable to My Structural Model? 147 Two Group Analysis 149 What if I Have More Than Two Groups in My Analysis? 161 Multi-level Modeling in AMOS ??When I Try to Run My Structural Analysis, I Get an Error Message About My Matrix Not Being Positive Definite 161 Can I Correlate the Error Terms of Two Unobservable Constructs in a Full Structural Model? 162 How Do I Present the Results of My Two Group Analysis? 162 How Do I Search for Multivariate Outliers? 162 How Do I Determine if My Data Is Not Normally Distributed (Non-Normal)? 165 What if I Get an Error Message in the Analysis That Says "Iteration Limit Reached"? 6 Mediation Introduction to Mediation 170 How to Test for Mediation 172 How Do I Report the Results of My Mediation Test? 180 How to use AI to Create Mediation Tables Ready for Publication? ?? Can I Use a Correlation Matrix or Summary Data to Test Mediation in AMOS? What if I Have Multiple Mediators in My Model? 182 How Do I Test Serial Mediation? 188 Setting the Seed in Bootstrapping 7 Moderation Introduction to Moderation 197 Probing the Interaction 202 Testing Moderation in a Full Structural Model 207 How Do I Present My Moderation Results? 219 Mean Center vs. Z Score in Moderation Testing 221 Moderation Testing with a Categorical Moderator 223 Calculating Categorical Moderation via Pairwise Parameter Comparison 227 Moderated Mediation with a Continuous Moderator 229 How Do I Report the Results of My Moderated Mediation Test? 234 Moderated Mediation with a Categorical Moderator 234 197 8 Using Categorical Independent Variables in SEM Binary Categorical Variables in SEM 240 Mediation with Binary Categorical Independent Variables 242 Multicategorical Independent Variables in SEM 244 Mediation with Multicategorical Independent Variables 247 Moderated Mediation with a Multicategorical Independent Variable 251 How Do I Report the Results of My Multicategorical Moderated Mediation Test? 9 Latent Growth Curve Models Introduction to Latent Growth Curve Models ?? Including Predictors Into a Latent Growth Curve Model ?? How Do I Present My Latent Growth Curve Results? ?? Latent Growth Curves with Nonlinear Patterns ?? Latent Growth Curves Across Two Domains ?? 10 Advanced Topics in SEM Assessing Statistical Power in Structural Equation Modeling ?? How to use AI to Calculate a Global Model-fit Power Analysis ?? Determining Power via Parameter Assessments using G*Power ?? Endogeneity in SEM Models ?? Non-Recursive Models (Feedback Loops) ?? Using Weighted Scores in AMOS ?? How to Use Bootstrapping to Account for Non-Normal Data 287 Mixture Modeling 293 Analyzing Censored Data 302 Using Specification Search to Perform Exploratory Factor Analysis 317 How to Use the Program Editor to Conceptualize Your Model and Run the Analysis 338.