PREFACE xvii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxiii ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE xxv 1 Introduction 1 2 Observations and Their Analysis 13 3 Random Error Theory 39 4 Confidence Intervals 57 5 Statistical Testing 81 6 Propagation of Random Errors in Indirectly Measured Quantities 99 7 Error Propagation in Angle and Distance Observations 115 8 Error Propagation in Traverse Surveys 145 9 Error Propagation in Elevation Determination 165 10 Weights of Observations 181 11 Principles of Least Squares 195 12 Adjustment of Level Nets 227 13 Precisions of Indirectly Determined Quantities 245 14 Adjustment of Horizontal Surveys: Trilateration 257 15 Adjustment of Horizontal Surveys: Triangulation 283 16 Adjustment of Horizontal Surveys: Traverses and Horizontal Networks 313 17 Adjustment of GNSS Networks 343 18 Coordinate Transformations 383 19 Error Ellipse 411 20 Constraint Equations 437 21 Blunder Detection in Horizontal Networks 457 22 The General Least-Squares Method and Its Application 23 Three-Dimensional Geodetic Network Adjustment 509 24 Combining GNSS and Terrestrial Observations 535 25 Analyses of Adjustments 567 26 Terrestrial Laser Scanning and Uncertainty Estimation 579 27 Plane, Three-Dimensional Objects, and Elevation Model Estimation with Point Clouds 615 28 Computer Optimization 657 Appendix A Introduction to Matrices 673 Appendix B Solution of Equations by Matrix Methods 689 Appendix C Nonlinear Equations and Taylor's Theorem 703 Appendix D The Normal Error Distribution Curve and Other Statistical Tables 713 Appendix E Confidence Intervals for the Mean 733 Appendix F Companion Website 739 Appendix G Answers to Selected Problems 745 BIBLIOGRAPHY 751 INDEX 757.