Chapter 1 - The Scientific Method and Criminology and Criminal Justice as Social Sciences Learning to Become a Researcher Circumscribing Criminology and Criminal Justice Circumscribing the Social Sciences The Near Social Sciences Other Disciplines that Utilize Social Science Research Methods Two Special Disciplines Linked to Social Science Features of the Scientific Method The Scientific Spirit Types of Issues Addressed by Social Scientists Summary Chapter 2 - Formulating Scientific Questions and Locating Background Research The Nature of Scientific Variables Conceptual Versus Operational Definitions of Variables Levels of Measurement Formulating and Refining Scientific Questions Locating Information on Topics of Interest Distinctiveness of Scientific Communication How Scientific Research Gets Reviewed and Sometimes Published Summary Chapter 3 - Ethical Issues in the Social Sciences Responsibilities to Participants of Research Deceiving or Causing Harm to Human Participants Obtaining Institutional Approval for Conducting Research Responsibilities to Fellow Social and Behavioral Scientists Ethics in Criminology and Criminal Justice Research Responsibilities to Humanity Summary Chapter 4 - Theories, Models, Hypotheses, and Empirical Reality The Concept of Causation The Nature of Scientific Theorizing Assessing the Merit of a Theory The Role of Theory in the Research Process Scientific Models, Laws, and Paradigms Hypothesis Testing and Attempts to Generalize The Null Hypothesis and Type I and Type II Errors Summary Chapter 5 - The Concepts of Reliability, Validity, and Precision in Measurement Using the Concept of Correlation to Discuss Measurement Accuracy Three Elements of Accurate Measurement Reliability Validity Precision Using Factor Analysis to Refine Measurement Accuracy Some Closing Remarks about Reliability, Validity, and Precision Summary Chapter 6 - Surveying and Sampling The Nature of Scientific Surveys Basic Terminology Representative Versus Non-representative Samples Probability Versus Non-Probability Sampling Methods Sample Size Surveying Over Time Serving as a Respondent to a Research Questionnaires Assessing Sample Attrition, its Extent and Causes Computer-Assisted Interviewing Limiting Sample Attrition Inaccuracies in Self-Reports Techniques for Minimizing and Detecting Dishonesty Summary Chapter 7 - Measuring Crime and Criminality Measuring Crime and Criminal Behavior The Uniform Crime Reports: Counting Crime Officially NIBRS: The "New and Improved" UCR Crime Victimization Survey Data Self-Reported Crime Surveys Measuring Criminal Propensity: Moving from Crime to Criminality Summary Chapter 8 - Controlled Experimentation Basic Experimental Terminology Main Types of Experimental Designs Pitfalls with Human Experimentation Shortcomings of Experimental Research Summary Chapter 9 - Quasi-Experimentation Quasi-Experiments Compared to Controlled Experiments Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Narrower Sense Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Broader Sense Quasi-Experimental Designs for Addressing Nature-Nurture Issues Summary Chapter 10 - Data Based on Self-Reports: Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaires Basic Terminology Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Based on Self-Reports Response Options for Questions Deciding Which Response Options to Use Types of Self-Reported Items Guidelines for Item Construction Types of Questions to Avoid Combining Two or More Items to Improve Reliability Time Diaries: A Special Type of Questionnaire Computerized Questionnaires and Use of the Internet Final Comments on Questionnaire Data Summary Chapter 11 - Direct Observations: Qualitative and Quantitative Data Qualitative Direct Observations Participant Observations Ethnographic Observations Case Studies Focus Group Research Archaeological Data Procedures in Ethnographic/Participant Observation Data Collection Quantitative Direct Observations Laboratory/Clinical Observations Field Research Direct Observations among Non-Human Animals Content Analysis Closing Comments on Direct Observation Summary Chapter 12 - Archival Data Analysis, Meta-Analysis, and Evaluation Research Units of Analysis Archival Data Analyzing Cross-Cultural Atlases Review Articles and Meta-Analyses Conceptualizing Evaluation Research Process and Impact Evaluation Research History of Evaluation Research Locating Reports of Evaluation Research Program Evaluation: Doing it Right Summary Chapter 13 - Univariate Statistics and the Concept of Statistical Significance The Nature of Univariate Statistical Concepts Measures of Central Tendency Measures of Dispersion Illustrating the Concepts of Averages and Dispersions Building the Concept of Statistical Significance Hypothesis Testing and the Concept of the Null Hypothesis Inferential Statistics Closing Remarks About Statistical Significance and Inferential Statistics Summary Chapter 14 - Bi/Multivariate Statistics: The Concept of Correlation Background for Bivariate Statistics Constructing Scattergrams Curvilenear Versus Linear Correlations Interpreting Statements about the Strength of Correlations Variability and Correlations The Statistical Significance of Correlation Coefficients Interpreting Two Studies Based on Correlation Reflections on the Importance of Statistics in the Research Process Multivariate Statistics: When Bivariate Statistics Are Not Enough Closing Comments on Multivariate Statistics Summary ial Sciences Responsibilities to Participants of Research Deceiving or Causing Harm to Human Participants Obtaining Institutional Approval for Conducting Research Responsibilities to Fellow Social and Behavioral Scientists Ethics in Criminology and Criminal Justice Research Responsibilities to Humanity Summary Chapter 4 - Theories, Models, Hypotheses, and Empirical Reality The Concept of Causation The Nature of Scientific Theorizing Assessing the Merit of a Theory The Role of Theory in the Research Process Scientific Models, Laws, and Paradigms Hypothesis Testing and Attempts to Generalize The Null Hypothesis and Type I and Type II Errors Summary Chapter 5 - The Concepts of Reliability, Validity, and Precision in Measurement Using the Concept of Correlation to Discuss Measurement Accuracy Three Elements of Accurate Measurement Reliability Validity Precision Using Factor Analysis to Refine Measurement Accuracy Some Closing Remarks about Reliability, Validity, and Precision Summary Chapter 6 - Surveying and Sampling The Nature of Scientific Surveys Basic Terminology Representative Versus Non-representative Samples Probability Versus Non-Probability Sampling Methods Sample Size Surveying Over Time Serving as a Respondent to a Research Questionnaires Assessing Sample Attrition, its Extent and Causes Computer-Assisted Interviewing Limiting Sample Attrition Inaccuracies in Self-Reports Techniques for Minimizing and Detecting Dishonesty Summary Chapter 7 - Measuring Crime and Criminality Measuring Crime and Criminal Behavior The Uniform Crime Reports: Counting Crime Officially NIBRS: The "New and Improved" UCR Crime Victimization Survey Data Self-Reported Crime Surveys Measuring Criminal Propensity: Moving from Crime to Criminality Summary Chapter 8 - Controlled Experimentation Basic Experimental Terminology Main Types of Experimental Designs Pitfalls with Human Experimentation Shortcomings of Experimental Research Summary Chapter 9 - Quasi-Experimentation Quasi-Experiments Compared to Controlled Experiments Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Narrower Sense Quasi-Experimental Designs in the Broader Sense Quasi-Experimental Designs for Addressing Nature-Nurture Issues Summary Chapter 10 - Data Based on Self-Reports: Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaires Basic Terminology Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Based on Self-Reports Response Options for Questions Deciding Which Response Options to Use Types of Self-Reported Items Guidelines for Item Construction Types of Questions to Avoid Combining Two or More Items to Improve Reliability Time Diaries: A Special Type of Questionnaire Computerized Questionnaires and Use of the Internet Final Comments on Questionnaire Data Summary Chapter 11 - Direct Observations: Qualitative and Quantitative Data Qualitative Direct Observations Participant Observations Ethnographic Observations Case Studies Focus Group Research Archaeological Data Procedures in Ethnographic/Participant Observation Data Collection Quantitative Direct Observations Labor.