Foreword xix Contributing Authors xxiii 1 Why CMP? 1 Yuzhuo Li 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Preparation of Planar Surface 2 1.2.1 Multilevel Metallization and the Need for Planarization 2 1.2.2 Degrees of Planarization 4 1.2.

3 Methods of Planarization 5 1.2.4 Chemical and Mechanical Planarization of Dielectric Films 7 1.2.5 Preparation of Planar Thin Films for Non-IC Applications Using CMP 8 1.3 Formation of Functional Microstructures 9 1.3.1 RC Delay and New Interconnect Materials 9 1.

3.2 Damascene and Dual Damascene 12 1.3.3 Tungsten CMP 15 1.3.4 STI 16 1.4 CMP to Correct Defects 19 1.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of CMP 20 1.

6 Conclusion 21 2 Current and Future Challenges in CMP Materials 25 Mansour Moinpour 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Historic Prospective and Future Trends 27 2.3 CMP Material Characterization 32 2.3.1 Thermal Effects 33 2.3.2 Slurry Rheology Studies 35 2.

3.3 Slurry-Pad Interactions 38 2.3.4 Pad Groove Effects 42 2.3.5 Pad-Wafer Contact and Slarry Transport: Dual Emission Laser Induced Fluorescence 43 2.3.6 Dynamic Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 45 2.

3.7 CMP Slurry Stability and Correlation with Defectivity 49 2.4 Conclusions 51 3 Processing Tools for Manufacturing 57 Manabu Tsujimura 3.1 CMP Operation and Characteristics 57 3.2 Description of the CMP Process 59 3.3 Overview of Polishers 60 3.3.1 CMP System 60 3.

3.2 Brief History of CMP Systems 61 3.3.3 Diversity in CMP Tools 62 3.3.4 Polisher 62 3.3.5 Cleaning Module in a Dry-in/Dry-out System 64 3.

4 Carriers and Dressers 65 3.4.1 Functions of Carriers and Dressers 65 3.4.2 Carrier 65 3.4.3 Profile Control by Carriers 68 3.4.

4 Dressers 69 3.5 In Situ and Ex Situ Metrologies 72 3.5.1 Application 72 3.5.2 Representative Monitors 72 3.5.3 Other Applications for the Monitors 75 3.

5.4 Communication 75 3.6 Conclusions 78 4 Tribometrology of CMP Process 81 Norm Gitis and Raghu Mudhivarthi 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Tribometrology of CMP 82 4.3 Factors Influencing the Tribology During CMP 85 4.3.1 Process Parameters During CMP 85 4.

3.2 Polishing Pad Characteristics 88 4.3.3 Slurry Characteristics 90 4.3.4 Water Contour Characterists 92 4.4 Optimizing Pad Conditioning Process 92 4.4.

1 PadProbeTM 92 4.4.2 Effect of Temperature 100 4.5 Conditioner Design 102 4.6 CMP Consumable Testing 105 4.6.1 Slurry Testing 105 4.6.

2 Pad Testing 108 4.6.3 Retaining Rings 110 4.7 Defect Analysis 113 4.7.1 Coefficient of Friction and Acoustic Emission Signal 113 4.7.2 Advanced Signal Processing 114 4.

8 Summary 117 5 Pads for IC CMP 123 Changxue Wang, Ed Paul, Toshihiro Kobayashi and Yuzhuo Li 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 Physical Properties of CMP Pads and Their Effects on Polishing Performance 124 5.2.1 Pad Types 124 5.2.2 Pad Microstructures and Macrostructures 125 5.2.

3 Polyurethane Pad Properties and Control 127 5.2.3.1 Hardness Young''s Modulus, and Strength 127 5.2.3.2 Pad Porosity/Density 128 5.2.

3.3 Pad Thickness 128 5.2.3.4 Pad Stiffness/Stacked Pads 129 5.2.3.5 Pad Grooves 129 5.

2.4 Effects of Pad Property on Polishing Performance 129 5.2.4.1 Pad Roughness Effects 130 5.2.4.2 Pad Porosity/Density Effects 131 5.

2.4.3 Pad Hardness, Young''s Modulus, Stiffness, and Thickness Effects 136 5.2.4.4 Pad Groove Effects 138 5.3 Chemical Properties of CMP Pads and Their Effects on Polishing Performances 140 5.3.

1 Polyurethane Pad Components 140 5.3.2 Polyurethane Property Control by Chemical Components 140 5.3.3 Chemical Effects on Polishing Performance 141 5.4 Pad Conditioning and Its Effect on CMP Performance 142 5.5 Modeling of Pad Effects on Polishing Performance 145 5.5.

1 Review of Modeling of Pad Effects on Polishing Performance 145 5.5.2 Modeling of Pad Effects on Polishing Performance 148 5.5.2.1 Pads and Pressure 148 5.5.2.

2 Pads and Abrasives 150 5.5.2.3 Pads, Dishing, and Erosion 154 5.6 Novel Designs of CMP Pads 159 5.6.1 Particle-Containing Pads 159 5.6.

2 Surface-Treated Pads 162 5.6.3 Reactive Pad 164 6 Modeling 171 Leonard Borucki and Ara Philipossian 6.1 Introduction 171 6.2 A Two-Step Chemical Mechanical Material Removal Model 172 6.3 Pad Surfaces and Pad Surface Contact Modeling 175 6.4 Reaction Temperature 178 6.5 A Polishing Example 185 6.

6 Topography Planarization 189 7 Key Chemical Components in Metal CMP Slurries 201 Krishnayya Cheemalapati, Jason Keleher and Yuzhuo Li 7.1 Introduction 201 7.2 Oxidizers 202 7.2.1 Nitric Acid 202 7.2.2 Hydrogen Peroxide 203 7.2.

3 Ferric Nitrate 210 7.2.4 Potassium Permanganate, Dichromates, and Iodate 212 7.3 Chelating Agents 214 7.3.1 Ammonia 215 7.3.2 Amino Acids 216 7.

3.3 Organic Acids 217 7.3.4 Thermodynamic Consideration and Quantitative Description 218 7.4 Surfactants 219 7.4.1 Structures and Physical Properties of Surfactants 219 7.4.

2 Dispersion of Particles 221 7.4.3 Surface Modification of Wafer Surface 222 7.5 Abrasive Particles 225 7.5.1 Hardness 225 7.5.2 Bulk Particle Density 227 7.

5.3 Particle Crystallinity and Shapes 227 7.5.4 Particle Size and Oversized Particle Count 228 7.5.5 Particle Preparation 230 7.5.6 Surface Properties 231 7.

6 Particle Surface Modification 233 7.7 Soft Particles 234 7.8 Case Study: Organic Particles as Abrasives in Cu CMP 235 7.8.1 Particle Characterization 235 7.8.2 Material Removal Rate and Selectivity 235 7.8.

3 Step Height Reduction Efficiency and Overpolishing Window 239 7.8.4 Summary on the Organic Particles 239 7.9 Conclusions 239 8 Corrosion Inhibitor for Cu CMP Slurry 249 Suresh Kumar Govindaswamy and Yuzhuo Li 8.1 Thermodynamic Considerations of Copper Surface 250 8.2 Types of Passivating Films on Copper Surface Under Oxdizing Conditions 252 8.3 Effect of pH on BTA in Glycine-Hydrogen Peroxide Based Cu CMP Slurry 257 8.4 Evaluation of Potential BTA Alternatives for Acidic Cu CMP Slurry 259 8.

5 Electrochemical Polarization Study of Corrosion Inhibitors in Cu CMP Slurry 263 8.6 Hydrophobicity of the Surface Passivation Film 265 8.7 Competitive Surface Adsorption Behavior of Corrosion Inhibitors 266 8.8 Summary 270 9 Tungsten CMP Applications 277 Jeff Visser 9.1 Introduction 277 9.2 Basic Tungsten Application, Requirements, and Process 278 9.2.1 Basic Applications of Tungsten CMP 278 9.

2.2 Basic W CMP Requirements and Procedures 281 9.3 W CMP Defects 282 9.4 Various W CMP Processing Options 285 9.4.1 Basic Considerations 285 9.4.2 Barrier Polishing 289 9.

4.3 Oxide Buffing 289 9.4.4 Post-W CMP Cleaning 290 9.5 Overall Tungsten Process (Various Processing Design Options and Suggestions) 290 9.5.1 W CMP Process Controls 290 9.5.

2 Platen Temperature Control 291 9.5.3 Slurry Selectivity 292 9.6 Conclusions 292 10 Electrochemistry in ECMP 295 Jinshan (Jason) Huo 10.1 Introduction 295 10.2 Physical and Chemical Processes in Electrochemical Planarization 297 10.2.1 Electrode/Electrolyte Interface 297 10.

2.2 Electrochemical Reaction 298 10.2.3 Mass Transport 299 10.2.4 Anodic Polarization Curve and Conditions for Electrochemical Planarization 300 10.3 Mechanisms and Limitation of Electrochemical Planarization 304 10.3.

1 Ohmic Leveling 304 10.3.2 Diffusion Leveling 305 10.3.3 Migration Leveling 307 10.4 In Situ Analysis of Anodic/Passivation Films 309 10.4.1 Impedance Measurement 309 10.

4.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy 310 10.4.3 Ellipsometry 311 10.5 Modified Electrochemical Polishing Approaches 312 11 Planarization Technologies Involving Electrochemical Reactions 319 Laertis Economikos 11.1 Introduction 319 11.2 CMP 321 11.3 ECP 322 11.

4 ECMP 326 11.5 Full Sequence Electrochemical-Mechanical Planarization 334 11.6 Conclusions 340 12 Shallow Trench Isolation Chemical Mechanical Planarization 345 Yordan Stefanov and Udo Schwalke 12.1 Introduction 345 12.2 LOCOS to STI 346 12.3 Shallow Trench Isolation 349 12.4 The Planarization Step in Detail 351 12.5 Optimization Techniques 358 12.

5.1 Dummy Active Area Insertion 359 12.5.2 Patterned Oxide Etch Back 359 12.5.3 Nitride Overcoat 360 12.5.4 EXTIGATE 361 12.

5.5 Selective Oxide Deposition 363 12.5.6 Polysilicon-Filled Trenches 363 12.6 Outlook 364 13 Consumables for Advanced Shallow Trench Isolation (STI) 369 Craig D. Burkhard 13.1 Introduction 369 13.2 Representative Testing Wafers for STI Process and Consumable Evaluations 371 13.

3 Effects of Abrasive Types on STI Slurry Performance 373 13.4 Effects of Chemical Additives to Oxide: Nitride Selectivity 379 13.