Rifa'a Rafi' al-Tahtawi (180173) was one of the most extraordinary scholars and driving forces of the nahd'a age, the political, social and cultural 'renaissance' or 'awakening' of the Middle East in the 19th century. He was the first Muslim to grapple with how to incorporate Western ideas and innovations, hitherto considered bidca, 'unreligious inventions', into his society. He is the undisputed leader of the modern Arabic translation movement, which opened the conduit between Europe and Egypt. And he introduced wat'aniyya (nationalism) when Muslims only identified with the umma, the Muslim community. Draws on sources such as al-Tahtawi's published works and unpublished manuscripts, his private papers and letters, official Egyptian government records and French archival records Focuses on his views on religious, political, social and educational reform Examines how his work shaped Arab perceptions of Europe and its society.