INTRODUCTION TO SHAFT ALIGNMENT Benefits of Good Machinery Alignment Consequences of Defective Alignment Four Basic Ingredients Necessary to Insure Alignment Success Eight Basic Steps to Align Machinery How Qualified Are You to Detect and Correct Machinery Misalignment? Why Should People Be Tested on Their Alignment Skills? Experience Evaluation for Machinery Alignment Who Needs to Be Trained and Qualified in Shaft Alignment? Assessing a Person''s Knowledge and Experience Level in Shaft Alignment Alignment Qualification or Certification Testing Periodic Alignment Checks Alignment Record Keeping References DETECTING MISALIGNMENT ON ROTATING MACHINERY The Four Maintenance Philosophies Types of Forces that Occur on Rotating Machinery Bibliography FOUNDATIONS, BASEPLATES, INSTALLATION, AND PIPING STRAIN Varying Composition of Earth''s Surface Layer How Do We Hold This Equipment in Place? Problems to Look for in Your Foundations and Baseplates Checking for Excessive Static Piping Forces on Rotating Equipment Visual Inspection Checklist How Long Will Rotating Machinery Stay Accurately Aligned? References FLEXIBLE AND RIGID COUPLINGS Coupling and Shaft Misalignment Tolerances-What is the Difference? The Role of the Flexible Coupling What to Consider When Specifying a Flexible Coupling Types of Flexible Couplings Rigid Coupling Design Flexible Coupling Lubrication Coupling Installation Coupling Hub Attachment Methods Keys and Keyways Bibliography PRELIMINARY ALIGNMENT CHECKS Foundation and Base Plate Checks Dial Indicator Basics Damaged, Worn, or Improperly Installed Machinery Component Checks Runout Machine Housing to Base Plate Interface Problems Verifying that the Soft Foot Has Been Eliminated Other Methods for Correcting Soft Foot Problems SHAFT ALIGNMENT MEASURING TOOLS Dimensional Measurement Classes of Dimensional Measurement Tools and Sensors Sweeping 90° Arcs Twice to Measure a Misalignment Condition Why Measurements Are Taken at 90° Intervals Rotating Both Shafts to Override a Runout Condition Tips for Getting Good Alignment Measurements Engaged Couplings Will Produce Measurement Errors Rim Indicator Setup Variations Rim Readings Indicate Twice the Centerline Offset Validity Rule Partial Arc Mathematics Bracket or Bar Sag Xmas Tree Brackets and Face Sag Zero Sag Brackets Dial Indicator Shaft Alignment System Manufacturers Dial Indicator Manufacturers Hardware Specifications Bibliography CORRECTING MISALIGNMENT Installing Machinery for the First Time Bolt-Bound Conditions Last Resort Measures for Bolt-Bound Conditions Machinery Positioning Basics Types of Movement Tools What to Do When Things Are Not Working Misalignment Rantings Bibliography ALIGNMENT MODELING BASICS Graphing and Modeling Alignment Techniques Basic Alignment Models Scaling the Drive System onto the Alignment Model Cardinal Alignment Graphing and Modeling Rules Bibliography DEFINING MISALIGNMENT: ALIGNMENT AND COUPLING TOLERANCES What Exactly Is Shaft Alignment? Does Level and Aligned Mean the Same Thing? Measuring Angles Types of Misalignment Definition of Shaft Misalignment Checking the Misalignment Tolerance Shaft versus Coupling Alignment How Straight Are Rotating Machinery Shafts? REVERSE INDICATOR METHOD Basic Mathematical Equations for the Reverse Indicator Method Modeling Reverse Indicator Method Using the ''''Point-To-Point'''' Technique Rim Readings Are Always Twice the Offset Amount Modeling the Reverse Indicator Method Using the Line-To-Point Technique Bibliography FACE AND RIM METHODS Mathematical Relationship in Machinery Alignment Sixteen-Point Method Twenty-Point Method Problems with Taking Face Readings Modeling the Face and Rim Method Artificial Face Surface References DOUBLE RADIAL METHOD Basic Mathematical Equations for the Double Radial Method Modeling the Double Radial Method SHAFT TO COUPLING SPOOL METHOD Basic Mathematical Equations for the Shaft to Coupling Spool Method Modeling the Shaft to Coupling Spool Method FACE-FACE METHOD Basic Mathematical Equations for the Face-Face Method Modeling the Face-Face Method ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRO-OPTICAL SHAFT ALIGNMENT SYSTEMS Optical Encoder System Laser-Detector Systems Laser System Manufacturers Hardware Specifications Laser System Manufacturers Software Specifications References MEASURING AND COMPENSATING FOR OFF-LINE TO RUNNING MACHINERY MOVEMENT What Type of Machinery Is Likely to Change Equipment''s Position When Running? What Causes Machinery Movement to Occur? Conducting the Off-Line to Running Machinery Movement Survey Taking "Hot" Alignment Measurements Immediately after Shutdown Four General Categories of OL2R Measurements Calculating Machine Case Thermal Expansion Using the Strain Equation Inside Micrometer-Tooling Ball-Angle Measurement Devices Vertical, Lateral, and Axial OL2R Movement Proximity Probes with Water-Cooled Stands Optical Alignment Equipment Optical Parallax Using Optical Tooling for Measuring Machinery Movement Establishing Reference Planes Alignment Bars with Proximity Probes Applying Laser-Detector Systems for OL2R Measurements Ball-Rod-Tubing Connector System Vernier-Strobe System Instrumented Coupling Systems Aligning Shafts for Running Conditions (Also Known as Running Alignment or ''''Hot Operating Alignment'''') Bibliography ALIGNING MULTIPLE-ELEMENT DRIVE SYSTEMS Multiple-Element Drive Train Alignment Laws Multiple-Element Drive Train: Graphing and Modeling Techniques Multiple-Element Drive Train Modeling-One Set of Shafts at a Time Multiple-Element Drive System Graphing-Modeling All the Shafts at One Time Mixing Different Alignment Measurement Methods Modeling Right-Angle Drive Systems Final Comments on Aligning Multiple-Element Drive Trains References ALIGNING V-BELT DRIVES Belt Drive Systems-Advantages and Disadvantages V-Belt Standards Information Sheave Information V-Belt Recommendations and Rules of Thumb Sheave and Belt Wear Adjusting Belt Tension Preliminary Alignment Checks for V-Belts and Sheaves Types of Sheave Misalignment Conditions Using a Straightedge to Measure Misalignment Measuring the Misalignment at the Sheaves V-Belt Machine Measurements Modeling V-Belt Alignment Problems V-Belt Alignment Modeling Sample Problem Laser Alignment Systems for V-Belts and Sheaves Bibliography BORE ALIGNMENT Aligning a Rotating Shaft with a Stationary Hollow Cylinder Aligning Two Hollow Cylinders Basic Measurement Principles and Nomenclature Cylinder Alignment Procedure Bucking in Process Correcting the Misalignment Laser Bore Alignment Systems PARALLEL ALIGNMENT Rough Alignment of Parallel Rolls Using Optical Alignment Equipment for Roll Parallelism Aligning the Rolls in the Vertical (Up/Down) Direction Aligning the Rolls in the Lateral (Side to Side) Direction Using Laser-Detector Systems to Measure Parallelism Using Roll, Pitch, and Yaw Positions of Rolls to Measure Parallelism Aligning Rolls and Their Drives-Sample Problem ALIGNMENT CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIFIC TYPES OF MACHINERY Drivers Bibliography THE HISTORY OF MACHINERY ALIGNMENT APPENDICES Appendix A: Machinery Data Card Appendix B: Sample Preliminary Alignment Record Sheet Appendix C: Sample Installation and Shaft Alignment Appendix D: Torque Values (SAE Grade 2 Bolts). Appendix E: Torque Values (SAE Grade 5 Bolts) Appendix F: Torque Values (SAE Grade 8 Bolts) Appendix G: Shaft Alignment and Related U.S. Patents Appendix H: Shaft Alignment Training Questionnaire Appendix I: Shaft Alignment Services Questionnaire Appendix J: Alignment Internet Web Sites Appendix K: Single Plane Balancing INDEXarth''s Surface Layer How Do We Hold This Equipment in Place? Problems to Look for in Your Foundations and Baseplates Checking for Excessive Static Piping Forces on Rotating Equipment Visual Inspection Checklist How Long Will Rotating Machinery Stay Accurately Aligned? References FLEXIBLE AND RIGID COUPLINGS Coupling and Shaft Misalignment Tolerances-What is the Difference? The Role of the Flexible Coupling What to Consider When Specifying a Flexible Coupling Types of Flexible Couplings Rigid Coupling Design Flexible Coupling Lubrication Coupling Installation Coupling Hub Attachment Methods Keys and Keyways Bibliography PRELIMINARY ALIGNMENT CHECKS Foundation and Base Plate Checks Dial Indicator Basics Damaged, Worn, or Improperly Installed Machinery Component Checks Runout Machine Housing to Base Plate Interface Problems Verifying that the Soft Foot Has Been Eliminated Other Methods for Correcting Soft Foot Problems SHAFT ALIGNMENT MEASURING TOOLS Dimensional Measurement Classes of Dimensional Measurement Tools and Sensors Sweeping 90° Arcs Twice to Measure a Misalignment Condition.