Contents Preface Introduction The Chinese language Mandarin pronunciation The Chinese vocabulary Part I Nouns Introduction 1 Nouns 1.1 Noun features 1.2 Proper nouns 1.3 Common nouns 1.3.1 The plural suffix-men 1.3.2 Nouns and definite or indefinite reference 1.
4 Nouns and conjunctions 1.5 Common nouns: countability 2 Numerals and nouns 2.1 Cardinal numbers 2.1.1 Two forms of the number two 2.2 Ordinal numbers 2.3 ''Half'' 2.4 Fractions, percentages, decimals, multiples and ''every'' 2.
5 Approximation 3 Measures for nouns 3.1 Measures andgè 3.2 Other measure words 3.3 Abstract nouns 3.4 Material nouns 3.5 Collective nouns 3.6 Relationship between measures and nouns 4 Pronouns 4.1 Personal pronouns 4.
2 Possessive pronouns 4.3 Demonstrative pronouns 4.4 Interrogative pronouns 4.5 Other pronouns 4.6 Pronouns and conjunctions 5 Adjectives and attributives 5.1 Attributives 5.2 Adjectives as attributives 5.2.
1 Monosyllabic adjectives 5.2.2 Polysyllabic adjectives andde 5.2.3 Disyllabic adjectives andde 5.3 Nominal attributives 5.3.1 Nominal attributives andde 5.
4 Prepositional and postpositional phrases as attributives 5.5 Verbal phrases or clauses as attributives 5.6 The order of sequential attributives 5.7 Demonstrative and numeral phrases with other attributives 5.8 Possessive pronoun and other attributives 5.9Ér between adjectives 5.10 Omission of the noun following an attributive 5.11 Attributives in word-formation Part II Verbs Introduction 6 Adjectival and nominal predicates; the verbshì 6.
1 Adjectival predicates 6.2 Adjectival predicates and the verb ''to be'' 6.2.1 Adjectival predicates and degree adverbs 6.2.2 Adjectival predicates in the negative 6.2.3 Adjectival predicates followed by verbs 6.
3 Non-gradable adjectives as attributives 6.3.1 Attributives of shape, colour or material 6.4 Nominal and pronominal predicates 6.4.1 Verbs resemblingshì 6.4.2 Nominal predicates without a copula 6.
5 The copulashì in its negative form 7 The verbyÇu ; comparisons 7.1 The functions ofyÇu 7.1.1YÇu indicating possession 7.1.2MÄi as negative ofyÇu 7.1.3YÇu indicating change or development 7.
1.4YÇu forming idiomatic expressions 7.1.5YÇu introducing adjectival predicates 7.2 Comparison 7.2.1 Emphatic or specific comparison 7.2.
2 Negative comparison 7.2.3 Comparison: equivalence or similarity 7.3 Comparatives and superlatives 8 Verbs and aspect markers 8.1 Action, state and dative verbs 8.2 Action verbs 8.3 Aspect markers 8.3.
1Le 8.3.2Guo 8.3.3Zài 8.3.4Zhe 8.4 State verb 8.
5 Dative verbs 8.5.1 Dative verbs relating to spoken activity 8.5.2 Dative verbs and aspect markers 8.6 Causative verbs 8.7 Imperatives 8.7.
1 Polite requests 8.7.2 Imperatives and aspect markers 9 Motion verbs and direction indicators 9.1 Motion verbs and simple direction indicators 9.2 Motion verbs and compound direction indicators 9.3 Motion verbs with metaphorical meaning 9.4 Direction indicators with specific meanings 10 Verbs and time 10.1 Time expressions 10.
2 Point of time expressions 10.2.1 Detailed time expressions 10.3 Point-of-time expressions incorporating verbal phrases 10.4 Imprecise points of time 10.5 Indefinite points of time 10.6 Frequency expressions withmÄi 10.7 Time expressions in existence sentences 10.
7.1 Time expressions in emergence or disappearance sentences 11 Verbs and location 11.1 Location expressions 11.2Zài and postpositional phrases 11.2.1 Disyllabic postpositions 11.2.2 Disyllabic postpositions as location pronouns 11.
3 Simple location sentences 11.4 Location phrases modifying main verbs 11.5 Location phrases in existence sentences 11.5.1Shì in existence sentences 11.5.2Zhe in existence sentences 11.6Le in emergence or disappearance sentences 11.
7 Order of sequence of time and location phrases 12 Verbs: duration and frequency 12.1 Duration expressions 12.1.1 Duration expressions and noun objects 12.1.2 Repetition of the verb in a noun-object-duration structure 12.1.3 Duration expressions and pronoun objects 12.
1.4 Duration expressions in dative construction 12.1.5 Duration expressions and definite reference 12.2 Brief duration 12.2.1 Brief duration and instrumental objects 12.3 Frequency expressions 13 Verbs and complements 13.
1 Complements 13.2 Complements of result 13.3 Potential complements 13.3.1 Potential complements using direction indicators 13.3.2 Metaphorical meanings of potential complements 13.4 Complements of manner and of consequential state 13.
4.1 Modification of complement of manner 13.4.2 Complement of consequential state 13.4.3 Complements of manner or consequential state with a ''verb + object'' verb 13.4.4 Adjectival complements of manner in comparisons 13.
4.5 Complement-of-manner comparison with a ''verb + object'' verb 13.5 Complement of location or destination 13.6 Degree complements 14 Verbs and adverbials 14.1 Adverbials of manner 14.1.1 Monosyllabic adjectives as adverbials of manner 14.1.
2 Adverbials of manner with marked verbs 14.1.3 Adverbials of manner with unmarked verbs 14.1.4 Monosyllabic adverbial modifiers withoutde 14.1.5 Particular types of adverbials of manner 14.2 Attitudinal adverbial expressions 14.
3 Referential adverbs 14.4 Referential adverbs with negatives 14.5 Order of sequence of referential adverbs 14.6 Order of adverbials in sequence 15 Modal and similar verbs 15.1 Modal, attitudinal and intentional verbs 15.2 Modal verbs 15.2.1 Modal verbs and adverbs of degree 15.
2.2 Modal verbs and comparison 15.3 Attitudinal verbs 15.3.1Wàngle and jìde 15.3.2GÄoxìng 15.4 Intentional verbs 15.
4.1 Negation of intentional verbs Part III Sentences Introduction 16 Statements and the sentence particlele 16.1Le as a sentence particle 16.2 Functions of sentencele 16.2.1 Summing-up function ofle 16.2.2Le as both sentence particle and aspect marker 16.
3 Cases where sentencele is not used 16.4 Ultimate versatility of sentencele 17 Questions 17.1 Question-word questions 17.1.1ZÄnmeyàng 17.1.2DuÅ in questions 17.1.
3Nein questions 17.2 General questions withma 17.3 Surmise questions withba 17.4 Affirmative-negative questions 17.5 Alternative questions withháishì 17.6 Tags indicating suggestion 17.7 Tags seeking confirmation 17.8 Rhetorical questions 18 Subject and predicate; topic and comment 18.
1 Dual patterning of sentence structures 18.2 Subject-predicate sentences 18.3 Topic-comment sentences 18.3.1 Further ways to form topic-comment sentences 18.4 Topic subject-predicate sentences 18.4.1 Notional passive sentences 18.
5 Subject topic-comment sentences 19 Prepositions and coverbs 19.1 Coverbs 19.1.1 Coverbs of place and time 19.1.2 Coverbs of methods and means 19.1.3 Coverbs of human exchange and service 19.
1.4 Coverbs of reference 19.1.5 Coverbs and comparison 19.2 Disyllabic prepositions 20BÇ andbèi constructions 20.1 ThebÇ construction 20.1.1 ThebÇ construction and complements 20.
1.2Le andzhe as complements inbÇ sentences 20.1.3BÇ and resultative complements 20.1.4Nòng andgÇoinbÇ sentences 20.1.5 NegativebÇ sentences 20.
1.6BÇ and modal verbs 20.1.7BÇ and indefinite reference 20.2 Thebèi construction 20.2.1Ràng andjiào 20.2.
2 Thebèi construction with an agent 20.2.3 Negativebèi sentences 20.3 Thebèi construction versus the notional passives 21 Serial constructions 21.1 General features of serial constructions 21.2 Semantic varieties in serial constructions 21.3 Adjectives or state verbs in serial constructions 21.4 Dative constructions 21.
5 Causative constructions 21.5.1QÇng in a causative construction 21.5.2 Extended causative constructions 21.6 Extended serial constructions 22 Emphasis and the intensifiershì 22.1Shì as an intensifier 22.2 Theshì .
de construction 22.2.1 Subject and object emphasis inshì . de sentences 22.2.2Shì . de construction andbù 22.3Shì withoutde for progression and projection 22.
3.1 Contexts forshì (without de) sentences 22.3.2Shì and comparison 22.3.3Shì and negation 22.4Shì and topic-comment sentences 22.4.
1Shì implying reservation 22.4.2 ''Verb/adjective +shì + verb/adjective'' implying reservation 22.5 Repetition and emphasis 23 Abbreviation and omission 23.1 Three types of abbreviation 23.2 Conventional abbreviations as subjectless sentences 23.3 Contextual abbreviation 23.4 Cotextual omissions 23.
4.1 Cotextual omissions and headwords 23.4.2 Cotextual omiss.