Foreword xix Preface xxi Prologue xxiii Part I: Nanotechnology and Risks 1 1 Understanding Nanoparticles and Their Probable Risks 3 1.1 What is Nanotechnology? 3 1.2 Unique Properties of Nanoparticles that Differentiate Them from Their Bulk Counterpart 5 1.2.1 Magnetic Properties 6 1.2.2 Electrical Properties 6 1.2.

3 Thermal Properties 7 1.2.4 Mechanical Properties 7 1.2.5 Chemical/Catalytic Properties 7 1.2.6 Optical Property 7 1.3 Fabrication of Nanoparticles 8 1.

4 Uses of Nanoparticles in Consumer Products 10 1.5 Potential Risks Due to Harmful Effects of Nanoparticles 11 1.5.1 Risk Due to Interaction of Nanoparticles with Living Organisms 12 1.5.2 Short- and Long-Term Risks 13 1.6 Need for Measurement of Exposure to Nanoparticles 14 1.7 Conclusion 16 References 16 2 Nanotechnology, Nanoparticles, and Living Systems 19 2.

1 Introduction 19 2.2 The Need for Nanotechnology in the Present-Day Scenario Cannot be Ignored 22 2.2.1 Increased Demand for Nanomaterial 23 2.2.2 Cheap and Clean Energy 24 2.2.2.

1 Batteries 24 2.2.2.2 Fuel Cell 25 2.2.2.3 Wind Energy 25 2.2.

2.4 Hydrogen Energy 26 2.2.3 Food Industry 26 2.2.3.1 Food Packaging Applications 26 2.2.

3.2 Food Processing Applications 27 2.2.4 Defense Sector 28 2.2.4.1 Nano Armor 28 2.2.

4.2 Nano for Faster and Intensive Medical Help 28 2.2.4.3 Nanotechnology-Based Weapons 29 2.2.4.4 Lighter and Faster Aircraft 29 2.

2.4.5 Nanotechnology for Vehicles 30 2.2.4.6 Radar-Absorbing Material (RAM) 31 2.2.4.

7 Portable Energy/Power 31 2.2.4.8 Nanotechnology for Satellites 31 2.2.4.9 Nanotechnology for Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological Warfare 32 2.2.

5 Medical/Healthcare 32 2.2.5.1 Application in Drug Delivery 32 2.2.5.2 Nanodiagnostics Application 33 2.2.

5.3 Application in Surgery 33 2.2.5.4 Application in Medical Robotics 33 2.2.6 Nanotechnology in Agriculture 34 2.2.

6.1 Precision Farming 34 2.3 Interdependence and Interaction between Various Living Systems 37 2.3.1 Life-Cycle and Exposure Challenges 37 2.4 Concerns of Nanoparticle Properties Impacting Interaction with Living System 38 2.5 Concluding Remarks 39 References 40 3 Methodologies for Assessing Risks Associated with Human Health and the Environment by Nanotechnology-Based Products 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.

2 Workplace Exposure to Effects of Engineered Nanoparticles 44 3.3 Effects of Engineered Nanoparticles on Animals, Plants and Environment 46 3.4 Traditional Methods of Risk Assessment of Chemicals 47 3.4.1 What is PM 2.5? 47 3.4.2 Parameters and Concerns for Formulating Methods for Risk Assessment 48 3.

4.3 Challenges Related to the Traditional Industrial Hygiene Approach 49 3.4.4 Traditional Instruments for Assessing Exposure 49 3.5 Methods for Risk Assessment of Nanoparticle 50 3.5.1 Control Banding to Analyze and Prioritize Risks from Nanomaterials 52 3.5.

2 How to Measure and Assess Exposure to Nanoparticles 53 3.5.2.1 Measurement of Airborne or Gaseous Nanoparticles 54 3.5.2.2 Assessment of Nanoparticles in Liquid 54 3.5.

3 Methods Used to Assess the Risk Due to Nanoparticles 54 3.6 Are Sufficient Methods Being Used to Assess the Risk from Nanoparticles? 56 3.6.1 Considerations to Assess Risks that Should be Taken into Account 57 3.6.2 Exposure Factors Required to be Specified for Risk Assessment Methodologies 58 3.6.3 How to Improve the Risk Assessment of Nanoparticles? 59 3.

7 Conclusion 59 References 61 4 Human Health Risks Due to Inhaled Nanoparticles 63 4.1 Introduction 63 4.1.1 Sources of Nanoparticles 64 4.1.1.1 Natural Sources of Nanoparticles that we Cannot Avoid 64 4.1.

1.2 Anthropogenic Sources of NPs that Need Careful Management 65 4.2 Inhalation Routes of NPs from Nose and Lungs to Other Organs of Human Body 66 4.2.1 Translocation of NPs to Different Sites of the Body 67 4.3 Cytotoxicological Considerations 67 4.3.1 Cellular Response 67 4.

3.1.1 Oxidative Stress 67 4.3.1.2 Inflammation 68 4.3.1.

3 Genotoxicity 68 4.3.1.4 Tumorigenicity 68 4.4 Known Hazardous Impact of Inhaled Nanoparticles on Human Health 68 4.4.1 The Respiratory Tract: Portal of Entry for NPs into the Human Body 69 4.4.

2 Blood Circulation System: A Trojan Horse for Inhaled Nanoparticles 71 4.4.3 Cardiovascular System Leading to Cardiopulmonary Disease 72 4.4.4 Digestive System: Can it Digest Nanoparticles? 73 4.4.5 Kidneys: Can They Flux Out All NPs 74 4.4.

6 Central Nervous System and Brain without an NP Barrier 74 4.4.7 Nanotoxicity against Reproductive System Organs 75 4.4.8 Hormone or Endocrine System Nanotoxicity 76 4.4.9 Cancer: Are Nanoparticles Friends or Foes? 76 4.5 Lung Bioassay Methodologies for Assessing Hazards after Exposures to Nanoscale or Fine Particulates 77 4.

6 Strengths and Weaknesses of Risk Assessment 78 4.7 Concluding Remarks 80 Bibliography 80 5 Dermal Entry Route of NPs into the Human Body: A Risk? 89 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Dermal Entry Route of Nanoparticles 91 5.2.1 Pathways for Skin Absorption of Nanoparticles 92 5.2.1.

1 Stratum Corneum (SC) 93 5.2.1.2 Skin Appendages 93 5.2.1.3 Interaction and Impact of Dermally Absorbed Nanoparticles with Biomolecules 93 5.3 Health Hazards of Dermal Exposure to NPs 95 5.

4 Risk Handling and Evaluation of Dermal Exposure Hazards 96 5.5 Conclusion 98 References 99 6 Different Exposure Scenarios and Nanotoxicological Information 103 6.1 Introduction 103 6.2 Exposure Scenario to NPs 105 6.3 Nanoparticle Exposure and Biokinetic Pathways 107 6.3.1 Biokinetic Pathway of NPs via Inhalation 108 6.3.

2 Biokinetic Pathway of Injected NPs 109 6.3.3 Biokinetics Pathway of Dermal Exposure to NPs 109 6.4 Nanotoxicity and Potential Mechanism 110 6.4.1 Size and Size Distribution of NPs 110 6.4.2 Morphology of NPs 110 6.

4.3 Surface Properties Such as Surface Area (SA) and Mass Ratio (MR) 111 6.4.4 Chemical Composition and Surface Characteristics of NPs 111 6.4.5 Insolubility or Low Water Solubility of NPs 112 6.4.6 Agglomeration/Aggregation of NPs 112 6.

5 Assessment of Toxicity of Nanoparticles 112 6.5.1 In-Vitro Toxicity Assay Method 112 6.5.2 In-Vivo Toxicity Assay Method 114 6.5.2.1 Histopathological Analysis 114 6.

5.2.2 Blood Chemistry Analysis 115 6.5.2.3 Immunotoxicity Assessment 116 6.5.2.

4 Genotoxicity Testing 117 6.5.2.5 Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity Studies 118 6.5.2.6 Organ-Specific Toxicity Assessment 118 6.5.

2.7 Long-Term Exposure Studies 119 6.5.2.8 Behavioral Studies 120 6.5.2.9 Metabolomics and Proteomics 121 6.

6 Risk Management of NPS 122 6.6.1 Identification of Hazards Caused by Nanomaterials 124 6.6.2 Guidance on Available Methods for Risk Assessment of Nanomaterials 125 6.6.3 (Q)SAR Models for Regulatory Assessment of Nanomaterial Risks 125 6.6.

4 Can AI Help in Risk Management of NPs 128 6.6.4.1 Analyzing Data and Predictive Modeling 129 6.6.4.2 Toxicity Prediction 130 6.6.

4.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 131 6.6.4.4 Regulatory Compliance 132 6.7 Conclusion 134 References 134 7 Assessment of Risks Due to Nanoparticles in the Ecosystem 139 7.1 Introduction 139 7.1.

1 Airborne Nanoparticles 141 7.1.2 Waterborne Nanoparticles 143 7.1.3 Nanoparticles in Soil 144 7.2 What to Consider for Nanoparticle-Related Assessment of Risks to Ecosystem 145 7.2.1 Identify and Characterize Properties of Nanoparticles of Concern 145 7.

2.2 Bioavailability, Uptake and Toxicity Assessment 146 7.2.3 Exposure Assessment Fate and Transport of NP 147 7.2.4 Ecological Effects and Risk Characterization 147 7.2.5 Uncertainty and Variability 148 7.

2.6 Risk Management and Mitigation 150 7.3 Monitoring and Surveillance 153 7.3.1 Monitoring Strategies 154 7.3.1.1 Remote Sensing 154 7.

3.1.2 Tracking Technologies 155 7.3.1.3 Challenges and Considerations 156 7.4 Stakeholder Engagement 156 7.4.

1 Government Agencies 156 7.4.2 International Organizations 157 7.4.3 Researchers and Scientists 157 7.4.4 Health Professionals 157 7.4.

5 Industry 157 7.4.6 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) 158 7.4.7 Consumers 158 7.4.8 Media 158 7.5 Concluding Remarks 158 References 159 Part II: Ethical Aspects 163 8 Ethics Governance and Policies: Problems and Concerns 165 8.

1 Introduction 165 8.2 How Does Ethics Pertain to Nanotechnology? 167 8.2.1 Ethics and Nanotechnology in the Workplace 171 8.3 Framework for Ethical Analysis of Nanotechnology 172 8.3.1 Considerations for Framework 172 8.3.

2 Privacy 175 8.3.3 Security Concerns 176 8.3.4 Environmental Concerns 177 8.4 Governance and Policies Based on Ethics 178 8.4.1 Subjectivity 178 8.

4.2 Complexity 179 8.4.3 Enforcement of Policy 179 8.4.4 Evolution of Ethics and Ethical Dilemmas 179 8.5 Problems and Challenges Faced in Addressing Ethical Concerns 1.