Preface xv Introduction xvii 1 Basic Concepts in Reservoir Engineering 1 1.1 Rocks and Their Types 1 1.1.1 The Rock Cycle 2 1.1.2 Erosion 5 1.2 Forms of Occurrence of Sedimentary Rocks 5 1.3 Hydrocarbon Reservoirs 6 1.

4 Oil and Gas Traps 7 1.4.1 Structural Traps 8 1.4.2 Lithological Traps 8 1.4.3 Stratigraphic Traps 9 1.5 Rock Porosity 9 1.

5.1 Primary and Secondary Porosity 9 1.5.2 Effective and Total Porosity 10 1.5.3 Diagenesis and Its Impact 10 1.5.4 Types of Porosity in Reservoir Rocks 12 1.

6 Rock Permeability 14 1.6.1 Types of Permeabilities 16 1.6.2 Klinkenberg Effect 17 1.7 Geological Heterogeneity of Rocks 18 1.8 Saturations 19 1.8.

1 Saturation Distribution in Reservoirs 19 1.8.2 Fluid Distribution in Reservoirs 20 1.9 Resistivity 23 1.9.1 Electrical Properties of Rocks 24 1.9.2 Basic Concepts: Ohm''s Law and Resistivity 24 1.

9.3 Formation Resistivity Factor 25 1.9.4 Tortuosity and Porosity 26 1.9.5 Empirical Relationships and Cementation 26 1.9.6 Resistivity Index and Water Saturation 26 1.

10 Capillary Pressure 27 Contents ftoc.indd 5 6/17/25 3:11 PM vi Contents 1.10.1 Capillary Pressure in Reservoirs 29 1.10.2 Laboratory Capillary Pressure Measurements 30 1.10.3 Entry Pressure 31 1.

10.4 Hysteresis--Imbibition Versus Drainage 31 1.10.5 Permeability Effects 32 1.10.6 Relative Permeability--Capillary Pressure Relationship 33 1.11 Types of Reservoir Fluids 36 1.11.

1 Black Oil 36 1.11.2 Volatile Oil 37 1.11.3 Gas Condensate 37 1.11.4 Wet Gas 37 1.11.

5 Dry Gas 39 2 Fluid Flow in Porous Media 41 2.1 Introduction 41 2.2 Applications of Darcy''s Law 42 2.2.1 Radial Flow 42 2.2.2 Permeability of Combination Layers 43 2.2.

2.1 Case I: Interbedded Reservoir Rocks 43 2.2.2.2 Case II: Composite Reservoirs 44 2.2.2.3 Radial Flow in Multiple Beds 44 2.

2.3 High-velocity Flow 45 2.2.3.1 Estimating the Non-Darcy Flow Coefficient ( β ) 46 2.2.4 Fracture Flow 46 2.2.

4.1 Effect of Fracture Shape 48 2.2.4.2 Hydraulic Radius of a Fracture 49 2.3 Differential Equations for Fluid Flow 50 2.3.1 Real Gas Flow in Porous Media 52 2.

3.2 Conservation Principle in Fluid Flow 52 2.3.2.1 Initial and Boundary Conditions 53 2.3.3 Discontinuities in Porous Media 54 2.4 Steady-state Flow 54 2.

5 Basic Solutions of the Constant Terminal Rate Case for Radial Models 55 2.5.1 Initial Condition 56 2.5.2 Boundary Conditions 56 2.5.3 Solution and Flow Regimes 56 2.5.

4 The Steady-state Solution 56 2.5.4.1 Solution Using Darcy''s Law 58 2.5.5 Non-steady-state Flow Regimes and Dimensionless Variables 58 2.5.6 Unsteady State Solution 59 2.

5.6.1 General Considerations 59 2.5.6.2 Hurst and Van Everdingen Solution 61 2.5.6.

3 The Line Source Solution 63 2.5.6.3.1 Range of Application and Limitations 66 2.5.6.4 The Skin Factor 67 ftoc.

indd 6 6/17/25 3:11 PM Contents vii 2.5.7 Semi-steady State Solution 69 2.5.7.1 Pressure Drop from Initial Reservoir Pressure 71 2.5.7.

2 Generalized Reservoir Geometry: Flowing Equation under Semi-steady State Conditions 72 2.5.8 The Application of the CTR Solution in Well Testing 73 2.6 The Constant Terminal Pressure Solution 76 2.7 Superposition 76 2.7.1 Effects of Multiple Wells 77 2.7.

2 Principle of Superposition and Approximation of Variable-rate Pressure Histories 78 2.7.3 Effects of Rate Changes 81 2.7.4 Simulating Boundary Effects (Image Wells) 83 2.8 Ideal Gas Flow 86 2.8.1 Streamlines, Isopotentials, and Source/Sink Representation 86 3 Classification of Hydrocarbons and Oil Reserves 89 3.

1 Common Classification of Hydrocarbons 89 3.2 Classification of Oil Reserves 90 3.2.1 Possible ORF 90 3.2.2 Degree of Proof of Reserves 90 3.2.3 Current State of Production and Field Development 91 3.

2.4 Energy Resource 92 3.3 Oil Recovery Factor 93 3.4 SPE/WPC/AAPG Classification of Reserves 93 3.4.1 Resource Uncertainty Categories 98 3.4.2 Risk-based Philosophy 99 3.

4.3 Uncertainty-based Philosophy 99 3.4.4 Project Status Categories 100 3.4.5 Prospective Resources 101 3.5 Russian Classification of Reserves 103 3.5.

1 Explored Reserves 103 3.5.2 Preliminary Estimated Reserves 104 3.5.3 Potential Resources 104 3.5.4 Forecasted Resources 105 3.5.

5 Evaluation Methods 105 3.5.6 Regulatory Framework 105 3.6 The United Nations Framework Classification for Resources 105 3.6.1 Key Components of UNFC 106 3.6.1.

1 E Axis--Environmental-Socio-Economic Viability 106 3.6.1.2 F Axis--Technical Feasibility and Maturity 107 3.6.1.3 G Axis--Degree of Confidence 108 3.6.

2 Classes and Subclasses 108 3.6.3 Detailed Explanation of Subcategories 109 3.6.3.1 E Axis Subcategories 109 3.6.3.

2 F Axis Subcategories 109 3.6.3.3 G Axis Subcategories 109 ftoc.indd 7 6/17/25 3:11 PM viii Contents 4 Oil Recovery Methods 113 4.1 Introduction 113 4.2 Primary Recovery 113 4.3 Secondary Recovery 113 4.

3.1 Water Injection 114 4.3.2 Gas Injection 116 4.4 Tertiary Recovery 117 4.5 Sweep Efficiency 120 5 Thermal Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) 123 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 Steam Injection 123 5.

2.1 Process Mechanism 124 5.2.2 Applicability Criteria 125 5.2.3 Field Implementation 126 5.2.4 Implementation Technology 128 5.

3 In situ Combustion 131 5.3.1 Process Mechanism 132 5.3.1.1 Dry Forward Combustion 132 5.3.1.

2 Wet Forward Combustion 133 5.3.1.3 Reverse Combustion 134 5.3.2 Applicability Criteria 135 5.3.3 Field Implementation 137 5.

3.4 Implementation Technology 138 6 Gas Flooding 143 6.1 Introduction 143 6.2 Injection of Hydrocarbon Gases 145 6.2.1 Process Mechanism 146 6.2.2 Applicability Criteria 153 6.

2.3 Field Implementation 154 6.2.4 Implementation Technology 155 6.3 Nitrogen Injection 157 6.3.1 Process Mechanism 158 6.3.

2 Applicability Criteria 160 6.3.3 Field Implementation 161 6.3.4 Implementation Technology 163 6.4 CO2 Injection 167 6.4.1 Process Mechanism 169 6.

4.2 Applicability Criteria 171 6.4.3 Field Implementation 171 6.4.4 Implementation Technology 175 6.5 Water-Gas Impact on the Formation 180 6.5.

1 Process Mechanism 181 6.5.2 Applicability Criteria 184 ftoc.indd 8 6/17/25 3:11 PM Contents ix 6.5.3 Field Implementation 186 6.5.4 Implementation Technology 189 7 Chemical Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) 197 7.

1 Introduction 197 7.2 Polymer Flooding 198 7.2.1 Process Mechanism 198 7.2.2 Applicability Criteria 202 7.2.3 Field Implementation 202 7.

2.4 Implementation Technology 204 7.3 Micellar-polymer Flooding 205 7.3.1 Process Mechanism 205 7.3.1.1 Structure and Composition of Micellar Solutions 207 7.

3.2 Applicability Criteria 210 7.3.3 Field Implementation 210 7.3.4 Implementation Technology 213 7.3.4.

1 Injection Sequence, Composition, and Structure of Solutions 213 7.3.4.2 Well Placement 213 7.4 Alkaline Flooding 214 7.4.1 Process Mechanism 214 7.4.

1.1 Oil Activity 214 7.4.1.2 Rock Wettability 214 7.4.1.3 Reservoir Heterogeneity 215 7.

4.1.4 Effect of Salts 216 7.4.1.5 Influence of Clays 216 7.4.1.

6 Carbonate Reservoirs 216 7.4.2 Applicability Criteria 217 7.4.3 Field Implementation 218 7.4.4 Implementation Technology 219 7.4.

4.1 Alkaline Flooding Options 219 7.4.4.2 Preparation of an Alkaline Solution 222 7.4.4.3 Fields with High-viscosity Oils 222 7.

4.4.4 Well Placement 223.