List of Contributors xvii Editor Biographies xxi Preface xxvii 1 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances: Overview 1 Divyanshu Sikarwar, Ritu Kshatriya, Neha Sharma, Sovik Das, Makarand M. Ghangrekar, Puspendu Bhunia, Bashir M. Al- Hashimi, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and C.M. Kao 1.1 Introduction 1 1.

2 Classification of PFAS 2 1.3 Production and Application of PFAS 3 1.4 Occurrence, Distribution, and Behavior of the PFAS in the Environment 4 1.5 Impacts of PFAS on the Environment and Living Beings 6 1.6 Action to Research, Restrict, and Remediate PFAS 7 1.6.1 Policies and Regulatory Measures 7 1.6.

2 Substitution Plan 8 1.6.3 Treatment and Remediation Technologies 9 1.6.4 Research Limitations of PFAS in the Environment 9 1.7 Book Structure and Outline of Each Chapter 10 References 11 2 Properties, Uses, Sources, and Environmental Releases of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 17 Anil Dhanda, Shraddha Yadav, and M. M. Ghangrekar 2.

1 Introduction 17 2.2 Properties of PFAS 18 2.2.1 Physical Properties 18 2.2.2 Chemical Properties 19 2.2.3 Thermal Stability 19 2.

3 Major Characteristics Affecting PFAS Fate and Transport in the Environment 20 2.4 Impacts of Peculiar Features of PFAS 20 2.5 History and Use of PFAS 21 2.5.1 Aerospace Sector 21 2.5.2 Biotechnology 22 2.5.

3 Construction and Infrastructure 22 2.5.4 Chemical Processing 22 2.5.5 Metal Finishing and Treatment 22 2.5.6 Electronics Industry 22 2.5.

7 Energy Technologies 22 2.5.8 Food and Beverage Processing 23 2.5.9 Mining Operations 23 2.5.10 Oil and Gas Industry 23 2.5.

11 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing 23 2.5.12 Rubber and Plastics Processing 23 2.5.13 Semiconductor Manufacturing 23 2.5.14 Textile and Leather Industries 23 2.5.

15 Medical and Diagnostic Devices 24 2.5.16 Metals and Ceramics 24 2.5.17 Musical Instruments 24 2.5.18 Optical Devices 24 2.5.

19 Packaging and Paper 24 2.5.20 Cosmetics and Personal Care 24 2.5.21 Pesticides and Agriculture 24 2.5.22 Pharmaceutical Ingredients 24 2.5.

23 Environmental Remediation 25 2.5.24 Sports and Recreation 25 2.5.25 Cabling and Wiring 25 2.6 Sources and Environmental Releases of PFAS 25 2.6.1 Major Sources for Environmental Releases of PFAS 25 2.

6.1.1 Industrial Facilities 25 2.6.1.2 Consumer and Domestic Products 26 2.6.1.

3 Landfills and Wastewater Treatment Plants 26 2.6.1.4 Legacy Contamination and Global Usage Patterns 26 2.6.1.5 Atmospheric Emissions and Long- Range Transport 26 2.6.

2 Ranking Exposure Pathways from Various Sources 27 2.6.2.1 Drinking Water Contamination (High Risk) 27 2.6.2.2 Food Chain Contamination (High Risk) 27 2.6.

2.3 Indoor Air and Dust (Moderate- to- High Risk) 27 2.6.2.4 Occupational Exposure (Moderate Risk) 28 2.6.2.5 Recreational Water Exposure (Moderate Risk) 28 2.

6.2.6 Soil Ingestion and Contact (Low- to- Moderate Risk) 28 2.7 Future Perspective 28 2.8 Conclusion 28 References 29 3 Current and Emerging Detection/Monitoring Techniques for Perand Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Quantification in Environmental Samples 35 Jiun- Hau Ou, Hua- Bin Zhong, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al- Hashimi 3.

1 Introduction 35 3.2 Sample Extraction Methods 35 3.3 Conventional Techniques for Detection of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 37 3.3.1 Liquid Chromatography 38 3.3.2 Gas Chromatography 39 3.3.

3 Ion Chromatography 39 3.4 Emerging Techniques for Detection of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 40 3.4.1 Colorimetric 40 3.4.2 Electrochemical and Sensor Based 41 3.4.3 Fluorescence- Based 42 3.

5 Indirect Quantification Techniques 43 3.5.1 Fluoride Ion Generation 43 3.5.2 Total Organic Carbon (TOC) 44 3.5.3 Total Fluorine Organic Compounds 45 3.6 Regulatory Determinations of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Comparison of Different Techniques 46 3.

6.1 Regulatory Determinations of PFAS 46 3.6.2 Techniques for Detecting PFAS in Different Media and Sensitivity Comparison 48 3.7 Monitoring Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment 49 3.7.1 Environmental Occurrence and Global Trends 49 3.7.

2 Matrix- Specific Monitoring Challenges 51 3.7.3 Integration of Emerging Technologies 53 3.7.4 Data Gaps and Harmonization Needs 54 3.7.5 Future Outlook 56 3.8 Challenges with the Detection and Monitoring of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 56 3.

8.1 Limitations of Detection Technologies 57 3.8.2 Inconsistent Monitoring Standards 58 3.8.3 Uncertainty in Environmental Migration and Transformation 60 3.8.4 Insufficient Databases and Monitoring Networks 61 3.

9 Future Perspective 63 3.9.1 Are Current Analytical Chemistry Techniques Adequate? 63 3.9.2 What Improvements Are Needed to Improve Process and Precision 63 3.9.3 How to Better Characterize the Range of PFAS Potentially in the Environment? 64 3.10 Conclusion 65 References 65 4 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Different Matrices: Occurrence, Distribution, Fate/Transport, and Behavior 79 Hua- Bin Zhong, Jiun- Hau Ou, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y.

Surampalli, Tian C. Zhang, and Bashir M. Al- Hashimi 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Fate/Transport and Transformation Processes 80 4.2.1 Partitioning 80 4.2.

2 Transport 81 4.2.2.1 Advection/Dispersion/Diffusion 81 4.2.2.2 Deposition 82 4.2.

2.3 Leaching 83 4.2.3 Surfactant Properties and Micelle Formation 84 4.2.4 Transformation of PFAS 85 4.2.4.

1 Abiotic 85 4.2.4.2 Biotic 86 4.3 PFAS in Different Matrices of the Natural Environment 87 4.3.1 Aqueous Matrices 88 4.3.

2 Solid Matrices 89 4.3.3 Air 89 4.3.4 Living Beings 90 4.3.5 Food Matrices 91 4.3.

6 Other Media and Compartments 92 4.3.7 Complex Transitions of PFAS among Different Media 92 4.4 PFAS in the Built Environment for Pollution Control 93 4.4.1 Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants 93 4.4.2 Combined Stormwater and Sewer Overflows 94 4.

4.3 Sewage Sludge, Biosolids, and Landfill Leachate 95 4.4.4 Solid Waste Management Systems 96 4.4.5 Remediation Sites 97 4.5 Future Perspective 98 4.6 Conclusion 99 References 100 5 PFAS in Drinking Water Sources: Global Presence, Impacts, Removal, and Regulation 105 Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Puspendu Bhunia, Rao Y.

Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Presence of PFAS in Drinking Water Sources across the Globe 106 5.2.1 Europe 106 5.2.2 America 112 5.

2.3 Asia 115 5.2.4 Africa 118 5.2.5 Australia 118 5.3 Human Exposure to PFAS through Drinking Water and Its Impacts 118 5.3.

1 Immunotoxicity 119 5.3.2 Carcinogenicity 120 5.3.3 Endocrine Disruption and Kidney Disorders 121 5.3.4 Fetal Growth 122 5.3.

5 Enhanced Cholesterol Levels 122 5.3.6 Hormonal Imbalance 122 5.3.7 Sexual Development 123 5.3.8 Liver Function Disorder 123 5.4 Removal of PFAS from Different Drinking Water Sources 124 5.

4.1 Adsorption 124 5.4.2 Membrane Technology 126 5.4.3 Anion Exchange 127 5.5 Regulations Imposed by Different Countries for the Ramifications of PFAS 128 5.6 Future Perspectives 130 5.

7 Conclusion 131 References 131 6 Occurrence, Transformation, and Removal of PFAS in Wastewater Treatment Plants 145 Srishti Mishra, Rishabh Raj, Brajesh K. Dubey, and Makarand M. Ghangrekar 6.1 Introduction 145 6.2 Occurrence of PFAS in Water Matrices 146 6.3 Distribution of PFAS in WWTPs Across the Globe 149 6.4 Removal of PFAS via Conventional Methods 150 6.5 Removal of PFAS from Biosolids 152 6.

6 Emerging Techniques for PFAS Removal and Future Perspectives 153 6.7 Conclusion 154 References 155 7 A Cyclic Problem of Disposal of Products and Materials Containing Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 161 Sudeep Kumar Mishra, Sanket Dey Chowdhury, Puspendu Bhunia, Arindam Sarkar, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 7.1 Introduction 161 7.2 Potential Sources Contributing to PFAS in the Environment 163 7.3 Life Cycle of PFAS in the Environment 165 7.4 Three Major PFAS Disposal Methods: Consequences and Impact 169 7.

4.1 PFAS in Leachate and Surrounding Areas of Landfill 169 7.4.2 PFAS in Effluent and Surrounding Areas of WWTPs 172 7.4.3 PFAS after Incineration 175 7.5 Risks to the Communities Dwelling Near Landfills and PFAS- Polluted Water Sources 178 7.6 Future Perspective 180 7.

7 Conclusion 180 References 181 8 Ecological Toxicity of PFAS 187 Wei- Ting Chen, Chathura Dhanasinghe, Chih- Ming Kao, Rao Y. Surampalli, and Tian C. Zhang 8.1 Introduction 187 8.2 Linking PFAS Substances or Subclasses with PFAS Adverse Effects to Aquatic and Terrestrial Organisms 188 8.3 Exposure Potential for Different Classes of Organisms 190 8.3.1 Aquatic Organisms 190 8.

3.2 Terrestrial Organisms 191 8.3.3 Human Exposure 192 8.4 Assessing the Ecological Effects of PFAS: Framework and Approaches 1.