Most educated observers who look at our democracy find it inadequate. Rather than featuring the civic engagement apparent in iconic Norman Rockwell paintings, the American electorate (and other electorates) calls to mind Joseph Schumpeter's famously grim vision of modern democracy: just as in autocracies, elites rule and the benighted masses follow more or less unquestioningly. Blame is typically cast on two sources: the structure of our impersonal and increasingly complicated institutions, or citizens themselves. In Individuality and Mass Democracy, Alex Zarakas acknowledges the importance of both, but focuses on the responsibility of citizens. It is true that by most measures citizens in mass democracies are docile--either disengaged or resigned to the notion that they cannot effect change. Offering a way forward, Zarakas draws on Mill and the rarely discussed Emerson to argue for a renewed ideal of individuality. For over a century, political theorists and philosophers have tended to talk about a mass citizenry, but both Mill and Emerson focused on individuals and ideals of excellence and responsibility. Democracy, they argued, demands that citizens take responsibility for the conduct of public affairs.

If people think themselves incompetent or overmatched, they will make incompetent and disaffected citizens. Mill and Emerson both felt that citizens of mass democracies were disillusioned: politics seems inscrutable and beyond their control. But they both believed that ordinary citizens were more capable and more powerful than they were commonly led to believe, and they contended that fostering a greater sense of individuality among citizens was crucial for reinvigorating democracy. While drawing from these two nineteenth century figures, Zarakas' book is decidedly about the present--an era characterized by mass disaffection, cynicism, and a sense of powerlessness in the face of impersonal yet powerful social forces. Cultivating a vigorous individuality, he contends, is not anti-political (as some argue). Rather, it has the potential to re-engage citizens more effectively than the remedies currently on offer.