Preface to the 2 Nd Edition vii About the Companion Website ix Chapter 1 An Introduction 1 Part I Space and Life Chapter 2 Some Basics 9 Biology and the Hierarchies of Life 9 Taxonomic Hierarchy 9 Ecological Hierarchy 14 Trophic Hierarchy 15 Physical Geography and the Functioning of the Earth 20 Global Climate 20 Microclimate 27 World Soils 27 The Physical Environment of Lakes 30 The Physical Environment of Oceans 32 Chapter 3 the Physical Environment and the Distribution of Life 37 Light 38 Temperature 41 Plants 41 Animals 46 Moisture 51 Plants 51 Animals 54 Other Physical Factors 55 Interacting Physical Controls on Geographic Distributions 57 Environmental Gradients and Species Niches 58 Chapter 4 Biological Interactions and the Distribution of Life 66 Predation 66 Competition 71 Symbiosis: Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism, and Mimicry 75 Combined Physical and Biological Controls on Distribution 78 Interactions, Gradients, and Niches 79 Chapter 5 Disturbance 85 Fire 92 Wind 100 Flooding 103 Other Physical Disturbances 109 Pathogens 112 Marine Disturbances 114 Chapter 6 Communities, Formations, and Biomes 121 Communities 121 Plant Physiognomy, Vegetation Structure, and Formations 127 Ecological Equivalents, Life Zones, and the Biomes 128 Tropical Rainforest 133 Tropical Seasonal Forest 140 Tropical Savanna 142 Desert 146 The Mediterranean Biome 151 Temperate Grassland 154 Temperate Forests 158 Temperate Rainforest 162 Coniferous Boreal (Taiga), Subalpine, and Montane Forests 165 Tundra 168 Part II Time and Life Chapter 7 Changing Continents and Climates 179 Life and the Geologic Time Scale 179 Shifting Continents 183 Quaternary Climatic Change 192 Future Changes in Continents and Climate 203 Chapter 8 Dispersal, Colonization, and Invasion 215 Dispersal 216 Colonization, Seasonal Migrations, and Irruptions 222 Diffusion Versus Jump Dispersal 228 Barriers, Corridors, Filters, Stepping Stones, and Sweepstakes 233 Recent Introductions and Invasions by Nonnative Species 237 Chapter 9 Evolution, Speciation, and Extinction 251 Evolution and Speciation 251 Some Basic Genetics 252 Historical Development of Evolutionary Theory 256 Isolation and Speciation 260 The Temporal Pattern of Evolution 264 Direction in Evolution 265 Perfection in Evolution 266 Increasing Global Species Diversity 267 Geography and Evolution: Founder Effects, Bottlenecks, Vicariance Events, Adaptive Radiation, and Evolutionary Convergence 268 Extinction 274 The Relationship Between Extinction, Evolution, and Diversity 282 Chapter 10 Realms, Regions, Kingdoms, and Provinces: the Biogeographic Subdivisions of the Earth 289 Defining Biogeographic Realms, Regions, Kingdoms, and Provinces 289 Determining the Boundaries Between Regions 294 Factors Behind the Biogeographic Regions 295 Evolution of the Mammals 296 Evolution of the Flowering Plants 300 The Biogeographic Regions 303 Nearctic and Palearctic Regions-- The Holarctic 303 Neotropical Region 305 Ethiopian (African/Paleotropical) Region 306 Oriental Region 307 Australian Region 308 Marine Biogeographic Regions 308 Chapter 11 Biogeography and Human Evolution 312 The Primate Linkage 312 Early Primates 315 The Hominids: Australopithecus 317 The Hominids: Early Homo 324 The Hominids: Homo Sapiens and Recent Cousins 327 The Geographic Expansion of Modern Humans 331 Chapter 12 Humans as a Force in Evolution and Extinction 340 Humans as an Evolutionary Force 340 Animal and Plant Domestication 341 Questions of the Origin and Spread of Agriculture 346 Modern Humans as a Force of Extinction 352 Prehistoric Extinctions 353 Historic Extinctions 358 Part III Theory and Practice Chapter 13 Description and Interpretation of Biogeographic Distributions 371 Mapping Biogeographic Distributions 371 Biogeography of Range Size and Range Shape 376 Common Biogeographic Distributional Patterns 380 Endemic and Cosmopolitan Distributions Revisited 381 Continuous Zonal Biogeographic Distributions 381 Disjunct Distributions 382 Dispersal Disjunctions 382 Climatic Disjunctions 383 Geologic Disjunctions 384 Evolutionary Disjunctions 385 Biogeographic Relicts 385 Biogeographic Distributions and the Reconstruction of Evolutionary History 386 Centers of Origin and the Dispersalist Model 387 Cladistic Biogeography 388 Panbiogeography and Vicariance Models 390 Beyond Strict Panbiogeography/Vicariance Biogeography: DNA and the Phylogeographic Revolution 392 Chapter 14 the Geography of Biological Diversity 399 What is Biological Diversity? 399 How Many Different Species are There on Earth? 402 Latitudinal and Altitudinal Diversity Gradients 404 Controls on Geographic Gradients of Species Diversity 407 Historical Theories 408 Equilibrium Theories 410 A Synthesis 418 Island Biogeography 420 Geographic Patterns of Island Biodiversity 420 The Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography: Historical Roots 424 The Theory of Island Biogeography Today 429 Chapter 15 Biogeography and the Conservation Challenges Of the Anthropocene 443 The Value of Conservation 445 Endangered and Threatened Species 448 Biogeography and Endangered Species 452 Biogeography and Conservation Planning 457 Geographic Strategies for Species Conservation and Biodiversity Conservation 462 Geographic Tools for Species Conservation and Biodiversity Conservation 467 Habitat Restoration and Conservation 471 The Anthropocene and Climate Change Challenges Ahead 475 Reasons for Hope 480 Final Reflections 483 Glossary of Key Words and Terms 493 Index 501.