About the Editor xiii List of Contributors xv Preface xxi 1 Wetlands of Eastern Himalaya: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 1 Kitichate Sridith 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Wetlands Categories of the Eastern Himalayas 2 1.2.1 The Valley Bottom Wetlands 2 1.2.2 Highland Bogs, Fens, and Marshes of the Eastern Himalayas 5 1.3 Floristic Composition of the Shallow Fresh Marsh, Seasonally Flooded Flat Basins, Poor Fen, and Freshwater Meadows of Eastern Himalaya Wetlands 11 1.

4 Spring Wetlands on the Lower Slope Areas of the Hillside in the Eastern Himalaya 12 1.5 Riverine and Floodplain Wetlands Above 2500 M in the Eastern Himalayas 14 1.6 The Livelihood in Wetlands of the Eastern Himalaya and the Conservation Measures 17 1.6.1 Livelihood of the Rivers/Streams Wetlands 18 1.6.2 The Conservation Procedures That May Harm Wetlands and Their Biodiversity in the Eastern Himalayas 18 1.7 Conservation Measures 18 References 19 2 Wetlands of Nepal: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation Initiatives 25 Krishna K.

Shrestha, Sanjeev K. Rai, Rabindra Maharjan, and Prabina Dahal 2.1 Introduction 25 2.1.1 Nepal''s Wetland Diversity 26 2.1.2 Ramsar Convention and Wetlands in Nepal 26 2.2 Wetland Biodiversity 28 2.

2.1 Floral Diversity 28 2.2.1.1 High Hill Ramsar Wetlands 28 2.2.1.2 Mid Hill Ramsar Wetlands 28 2.

2.1.3 Lowland Ramsar Wetlands 28 2.2.2 Faunal Diversity 32 2.2.2.1 High Hill Ramsar Wetlands 32 2.

2.2.2 Mid Hill Ramsar Wetlands 33 2.2.2.3 Lowland Ramsar Wetlands 33 2.3 Wetlands in Nepal 37 2.3.

1 Wetlands in Mountains (or High Hills) of Nepal 38 2.3.1.1 Gokyo and Associated Wetlands (Solukhumbu District, Koshi Province, Eastern Nepal) 38 2.3.1.2 Gosainkunda and Associated Wetlands (Rasuwa District, Bagmati Province, Central Nepal) 38 2.3.

1.3 Phoksundo Wetland (Dolpa District, Karnali Province, Western Nepal) 41 2.3.1.4 Rara Wetland (Mugu District, Karnali Province, Western Nepal) 41 2.3.2 Wetlands in the Mid Hills of Nepal 44 2.3.

2.1 Mai Pokhari Wetland (Ilam District, Koshi Province, Eastern Nepal) 44 2.3.2.2 Lake Cluster of Pokhara Valley (Kaski District, Gandaki Province, Central Nepal) 46 2.3.3 Wetlands in the Low Land (Tarai) of Nepal 47 2.3.

3.1 Koshi Tappu Wetland (Sunsari District, Koshi Province, Eastern Nepal) 47 2.3.3.2 Beeshazar Wetland and Associated Lakes (Chitwan District, Bagmati Province, Central Nepal) 49 2.3.3.3 Jagdishpur Lake Wetland (Kapilvastu District, Lumbini Province, Central Nepal) 51 2.

3.3.4 Ghodaghodi Lake Complex (Kailali District, Sudur Paschim Province, Western Nepal) 52 2.3.4 Wetlands of National Importance 52 2.4 Livelihood Issues Associated with the Wetlands 57 2.4.1 Wetlands and Livelihood Incentives 57 2.

4.1.1 Provisioning Services 57 2.4.1.2 Regulating Services 59 2.4.1.

3 Supporting Services 59 2.4.1.4 Cultural Services 59 2.4.2 Wetlands and Tourism Industry 59 2.5 Threats to Wetlands 60 2.5.

1 Alien Invasive Species 60 2.5.2 Climate Change 60 2.5.3 Lack of Science-Based Knowledge 61 2.5.4 Infrastructures and Recreational Activities 61 2.5.

5 Threats to Cultural Sites 61 2.6 Wetland Conservation Initiatives 61 2.6.1 Wetland Management Practices 62 2.6.2 Wetland Conservation Policies in Nepal 63 2.6.3 Wetland-Related Legislations 63 2.

6.4 Wetland-Related Conventions and Commitments 63 2.7 Recommendations and Conclusion 65 GIS Map Credit 66 Photo Credit 66 3.A Common Flora (Plant Diversity) in and Around Ramsar Wetlands of Nepal 67 3.B Common Fauna (Animal Diversity) in and Around Ramsar Wetlands of Nepal 75 References 80 3 Wetlands of Himalayan and Hindu Kush Regions of Pakistan 85 Andleeb Batool, Naseeba Mustafavi, Asia Parveen, Maryam Mukhtar, Abdul Jabbar, and Dania Razzaq 3.1 Introduction 85 3.2 Geographical Setting 86 3.3 Biodiversity 87 3.

3.1 Mammals 87 3.3.2 Birds 91 3.3.3 Fishes 92 3.3.4 The Herpetofauna 92 3.

4 Flora 93 3.5 Threats 95 3.5.1 Excessive Resource Harvesting 95 3.5.2 Illegal Hunting and Retaliatory Killings 95 3.5.3 Decreasing Water Quality 95 3.

5.4 Ill-Managed Tourism 95 3.5.5 Potential Climate Change 96 3.6 Conservation Strategies 96 3.7 Gaps in Conservation Efforts 96 References 97 4 Wetlands of Armenia: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 103 Karen Aghababyan, Janna Akopian, Susanna Hakobyan, Mark Kalashian, Astghik Ghazaryan, Levon Aghasyan, Samvel Pipoyan, Noushig Zarikian, and Karen Jenderedjian 4.1 Overview 103 4.2 Biodiversity 104 4.

2.1 Wetlands of Ararat Plain 104 4.2.2 Grassy Marshes 111 4.3 Human Factors 120 4.3.1 Water Acquisition 120 4.3.

2 Drainage of Wetlands 121 4.3.3 Pollution of Wetlands 122 4.3.4 Reed Harvesting and Arsons 122 4.3.5 Livestock Grazing 122 4.3.

6 Waterbird Harvesting 122 4.4 Conservation 123 References 124 5 Wetlands of Georgia 129 Guram Aleksidze, Givi Japaridze, and Zurab Manvelidze 5.1 Kolkheti Landscapes and Their Condition 129 5.2 Agroclimatic Characteristics of Kolkheti Lowland 130 5.3 Soils of Kolkheti 131 5.4 Wetland Landscape as an Economic Resource Phenomenon 131 5.4.1 Peat Deposits 132 5.

4.2 Swamps of Kolkheti 132 5.4.3 Biodiversity of Protected and Recreation Areas of Kolkheti 134 5.4.3.1 Biodiversity of Kolkheti National Park 134 5.4.

3.2 Biodiversity of Kobuleti Protected Areas 138 5.4.3.3 Biodiversity of Shekvetili Dendrological Park (Guria, Ozurgeti) 141 5.4.3.4 Protected Areas of Colchic Rainforests 141 5.

4.3.5 Kintrishi Protected Areas 143 5.4.3.6 Biodiversity of Protected Areas of Colchic Temperate Rainforests 143 5.4.3.

7 Endemic Plant Species Protected Areas of Colchic Rainforests 149 5.5 The Future of Kolkheti Wetlands: Development Prospects 152 5.6 Livelihood of Kolkheti Lowland 153 References 154 6 Wetlands of Mountainous Regions of Slovakia: Biodiversity, Livelihoods, and Conservation 157 Ján cernecký, Jana Spulerová, Viktória duricová, and Ján Kadlecík 6.1 Introduction 157 6.2 Legislative Protection of Wetlands in Slovakia 159 6.2.1 Protection of Wetlands at National Level 159 6.2.

2 Protection of Wetlands by Natura 2000 Protected Area Network 159 6.3 Protection of Wetlands by International Treaties 161 6.4 List and Description of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia 165 6.4.1 Vo Aquatic Habitats 165 6.4.2 Br Non-forested Riparian Vegetation 167 6.4.

3 Kr Shrub and Bush Habitats 168 6.4.4 Al Alpine Vegetation 169 6.4.5 Lk Meadows and Pastures 169 6.4.6 Ra Peatland Habitats 170 6.4.

7 Pr Springs 172 6.4.8 Ls Forests 173 6.5 Conservation Status of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia 174 6.6 Threats and Management of Wetlands in Mountainous Areas of Slovakia 174 6.6.1 Changes in Hydrological Conditions Due to Drainage, Abstraction, and Hydropower Plant Construction 174 6.6.

2 Erosion and Sedimentation 175 6.6.3 Agriculture and Forestry 176 6.6.4 Transport Infrastructure and Constructions 176 6.6.5 Tourism and Recreation 176 6.6.

6 Pollution 176 6.6.7 Alien Invasive Species 177 6.7 Management and Restoration of Wetlands in Slovakia 177 6.8 Determination of Priorities and Protection Objectives for Habitats and Species of European Importance 181 6.8.1 Priorities for Determining Measures and Management for Species and Habitats of European Importance 181 6.8.

2 Conservation Objectives for Habitats and Species of European Importance in Sites of European Importance 181 6.8.3 Management Measures for Habitats and Habitats of Species of European Importance 181 6.9 Contribution of Slovak Mountain Wetlands to Livelihood 182 References 183 7 Wetlands of Mountainous Region of Bosnia and Herzegovina 187 Barudanovic Senka, Masic Ermin, and Macanovic Armin 7.1 Introduction 187 7.2 Distribution and Factors of Formation of Peatland Ecosystems 188 7.2.1 Characteristics of the Peatland Ecosystem in the B&H Mountains 190 7.

2.2 Basic Ecological and Phytocenological Characteristics of Peatlands in Bosnia and Herzegovina 191 7.3 Overview of Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of Mountain Peatlands in Bosnia and Herzegovina 194 7.3.1 Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of the Peatlands in Bijambare 194 7.3.2 Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of the Peatlands on Mt. Zvijezda 195 7.

3.3 Abiotic and Biotic Characteristics of the Peatlands on Mt. Vranica 196 7.4 Spectrum of Indicator Values of Peatland Ecosystems in Bosnia and Herzegovina 198 7.5 Overview of Algae Diversity in Peatlands of Bosnia and Herzegovina 200 7.6 Pressures on the Peatland Ecosystems of Bosnia and Herzegovina 201 7.7 Principles of Ecological Restoration and Conservation of Peatland Ecosystems 203 References 204 8 Wetlands of Mountainous Regions of Mexico 207 José Luis Marín-Muñiz and Sergio A. Zamora Castro 8.

1 Introduction 207 8.2 Location of Mexico 208 8.3 Importance of Wetlands 208 8.4 Common Issues Affecting Wetla.