PREFACE V 1 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MEASUREMENT METHODS 1 1.1 Introduction, 1 1.2 General Measurement System, 2 Sensor and Transducer, 2 Signal-Conditioning Stage, 3 Output Stage, 4 General Template for a Measurement System, 4 1.3 Experimental Test Plan, 5 Variables, 6 Noise and Interference, 8 Randomization, 9 Replication and Repetition, 13 Concomitant Methods, 14 1.4 Calibration, 14 Dynamic Calibration, 14 Static Sensitivity, 15 Range and Span, 15 Resolution, 16 Accuracy and Error, 16 Random and Systematic Errors and Uncertainty, 16 Sequential Test, 19 Hysteresis, 19 Random Test, 19 Linearity Error, 19 Sensitivity and Zero Errors, 21 Instrument Repeatability, 21 Reproducibility, 21 Instrument Precision, 21 Overall Instrument Error and Instrument Uncertainty, 22 VeriFication and Validation, 22 1.5 Standards, 22 Primary Unit Standards, 22 Base Dimensions and Their Units, 23 Derived Units, 25 Hierarchy of Standards, 28 Test Standards and Codes, 29 1.6 Presenting Data, 30 Rectangular Coordinate Format, 30 Semilog Coordinate Format, 30 Full-Log Coordinate Format, 30 SigniFicant Digits, 30 Summary, 33 Nomenclature, 34 References, 34 2 STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SIGNALS 35 2.1 Introduction, 35 2.
2 Input/Output Signal Concepts, 35 Generalized Behavior, 36 ClassiFication of Waveforms, 36 Signal Waveforms, 38 2.3 Signal Analysis, 39 Signal Root-Mean-Square Value, 40 Discrete Time or Digital Signals, 40 Direct Current Offset, 41 2.4 Signal Amplitude and Frequency, 42 Periodic Signals, 43 Frequency Analysis, 45 Fourier Series and CoefFicients, 48 Fourier CoefFicients, 48 Special Case: Functions with T = 2Ï, 49 Even and Odd Functions, 49 2.5 Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum, 55 Discrete Fourier Transform, 56 Analysis of Signals in Frequency Space, 60 Summary, 62 References, 63 Suggested Reading, 63 Nomenclature, 63 3 MEASUREMENT SYSTEM BEHAVIOR 64 3.1 Introduction, 64 3.2 General Model for a Measurement System, 64 Dynamic Measurements, 65 Measurement System Model, 66 3.3 Special Cases of the General System Model, 68 Zero-Order Systems, 68 First-Order Systems, 69 Second-Order Systems, 79 3.4 Transfer Functions, 88 3.
5 Phase Linearity, 90 3.6 Multiple-Function Inputs, 91 3.7 Coupled Systems, 93 3.8 Numerical Methods for Solving Ordinary Differential Equations 3.9 Summary, 95 References, 95 Nomenclature, 96 Subscripts, 96 4 PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS 97 4.1 Introduction, 97 4.2 Statistical Measurement Theory, 98 Probability Density Functions, 98 4.3 Describing the Behavior of a Population, 103 4.
4 Statistics of Finite-Sized Data Sets, 107 Standard Deviation of the Means, 110 Repeated Tests and Pooled Data, 113 4.5 Hypothesis Testing, 114 4.6 Chi-Squared Distribution, 117 Precision Interval in a Sample Variance, 118 Goodness-of-Fit Test, 119 4.7 Regression Analysis, 121 Least-Squares Regression Analysis, 121 Linear Polynomials, 124 4.8 Data Outlier Detection, 126 4.9 Number of Measurements Required, 127 4.10 Monte Carlo Simulations, 129 Summary, 131 References, 132 Nomenclature, 132 5 UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS 133 5.1 Introduction, 133 5.
2 Measurement Errors, 134 5.3 Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis, 136 Combining Elemental Errors: RSS Method, 137 Design-Stage Uncertainty, 137 5.4 Identifying Error Sources, 140 Calibration Errors, 141 Data-Acquisition Errors, 141 Data-Reduction Errors, 142 5.5 Systematic and Random Errors and Standard Uncertainties, 142 Systematic Error, 142 Random Error, 143 Other Ways Used to Classify Error and Uncertainty, 144 5.6 Uncertainty Analysis: Multi-Variable Error Propagation, 144 Propagation of Error, 145 Approximating a Sensitivity Index, 146 Sequential Perturbation, 149 Monte Carlo Method, 151 5.7 Advanced-Stage Uncertainty Analysis, 151 Zero-Order Uncertainty, 152 Higher-Order Uncertainty, 152 Nth-Order Uncertainty, 152 5.8 Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis, 157 Propagation of Elemental Errors, 157 Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result, 163 5.9 Correction for Correlated Errors, 168 5.
10 Nonsymmetrical Systematic Uncertainty Interval, 170 Summary, 172 References, 172 Nomenclature, 172 6 ANALOG ELECTRICAL DEVICES AND MEASUREMENTS 174 6.1 Introduction, 174 6.2 Analog Devices: Current Measurements, 174 Direct Current, 174 Alternating Current, 178 6.3 Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements, 179 Analog Voltage Meters, 179 Oscilloscope, 179 Potentiometer, 181 6.4 Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements, 182 Ohmmeter Circuits, 182 Bridge Circuits, 182 Null Method, 184 Deection Method, 185 6.5 Loading Errors and Impedance Matching, 188 Loading Errors for Voltage-Dividing Circuit, 189 Interstage Loading Errors, 190 6.6 Analog Signal Conditioning: AmpliFiers, 193 6.7 Analog Signal Conditioning: Special-Purpose Circuits, 196 Analog Voltage Comparator, 196 Sample-and-Hold Circuit, 197 Charge AmpliFier, 197 4-20 mA Current Loop, 199 Multivibrator and Flip-Flop Circuits, 199 6.
8 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters, 201 Butterworth Filter Design, 202 Improved Butterworth Filter Designs, 203 Bessel Filter Design, 208 Active Filters, 209 6.9 Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires, 211 Ground and Ground Loops, 211 Shields, 212 Connecting Wires, 213 Summary, 213 References, 214 Nomenclature, 214 7 SAMPLING, DIGITAL DEVICES, AND DATA ACQUISITION 215 7.1 Introduction, 215 7.2 Sampling Concepts, 216 Sample Rate, 216 Alias Frequencies, 218 Amplitude Ambiguity, 221 Leakage, 221 Waveform Fidelity, 223 7.3 Digital Devices: Bits and Words, 223 7.4 Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals, 226 7.5 Voltage Measurements, 227 Digital-to-Analog Converter, 227 Analog-to-Digital Converter, 228 Successive Approximation Converters, 232 7.6 Data Acquisition Systems, 237 7.
7 Data Acquisition System Components, 238 Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters and AmpliFication, 238 Components for Acquiring Data, 241 7.8 Analog Input-Output Communication, 242 Data Acquisition Modules, 242 7.9 Digital Input-Output Communication, 246 Data Transmission, 247 Universal Serial Bus, 248 Bluetooth Communications, 248 Other Serial Communications: RS-232C, 249 Parallel Communications, 249 Summary, 256 References, 256 Nomenclature, 256 8 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS 258 0 8.1 Introduction, 258 Historical Background, 258 8.2 Temperature Standards and DeFinition, 259 Fixed Point Temperatures and Interpolation, 259 Temperature Scales and Standards, 260 8.3 Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion, 261 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers, 262 Bimetallic Thermometers, 262 8.4 Electrical Resistance Thermometry, 263 Resistance Temperature Devices, 264 Thermistors, 271 8.5 Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement, 276 Seebeck Effect, 276 Peltier Effect, 277 Thomson Effect, 277 Fundamental Thermocouple Laws, 278 Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples, 279 Thermocouple Standards, 280 Thermocouple Voltage Measurement, 287 Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits, 289 Applications for Thermoelectric Temperature Measurement: Heat Flux, 291 Data Acquisition Considerations, 294 8.
6 Radiative Temperature Measurements, 297 Radiation Fundamentals, 297 Radiation Detectors, 299 Radiometer, 299 Pyrometry, 300 Optical Fiber Thermometers, 301 Narrow-Band Infrared Temperature Measurement, 302 Fundamental Principles, 302 Two-Color Thermometry, 303 Full-Field IR Imaging, 303 8.7 Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement, 304 Insertion Errors, 305 Conduction Errors, 306 Radiation Errors, 308 Radiation Shielding, 310 Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement, 311 Summary, 313 References, 313 Suggested Reading, 313 Nomenclature, 314 9 PRESSURE AND VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS 315 9.1 Introduction, 315 9.2 Pressure Concepts, 315 9.3 Pressure Reference Instruments, 318 McLeod Gauge, 318 Barometer, 319 Manometer, 320 Deadweight Testers, 324 9.4 Pressure Transducers, 325 Bourdon Tube, 326 Bellows and Capsule Elements, 326 Diaphragms, 327 Piezoelectric Crystal Elements, 330 9.5 Pressure Transducer Calibration, 331 Static Calibration, 331 Dynamic Calibration, 331 9.6 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids, 333 Total Pressure Measurement, 334 Static Pressure Measurement, 335 9.
7 Modeling Pressure-Fluid Systems, 336 9.8 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects, 337 Liquids, 338 Gases, 339 Heavily Damped Systems, 340 9.9 Acoustical Measurements, 341 Signal Weighting, 341 Microphones, 342 9.10 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems, 345 Pitot-Static Pressure Probe, 346 Thermal Anemometry, 348