Foreword ix Preface xi Glossary xiii Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Viruses, the Microbial Enigma 2 History of Food Virology 4 Sources of Quoted Data 9 Further Reading 9 Chapter 2 The Foodborne Viruses 11 Norovirus 12 Hepatitis A Virus 16 Hepatitis E Virus 20 Occasionally or Potentially Foodborne Viruses 22 Adenovirus 23 Astrovirus 23 Enterovirus 24 Nipah Virus 25 Parvovirus 25 Rotavirus 25 Sapovirus 27 Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus 27 Epidemiology of the Major Foodborne Viruses 27 Norovirus 28 Hepatitis A Virus 29 Hepatitis E Virus 29 Sources of Quoted Data 30 Further Reading 31 Chapter 3 How Does Food Become Contaminated? 33 Routes of Contamination 35 Extrinsic Contamination 35 Intrinsic Contamination 40 Outbreak Descriptions 40 Outbreaks Caused by Extrinsic Contamination 42 Outbreaks Caused by Intrinsic Contamination 46 Sources of Quoted Data 47 Further Reading 49 Chapter 4 Detection 51 Sample Treatment 52 Sample Size 52 Release of Viruses from the Foodstuff 53 Removal of Food Substances 55 Concentration of Viruses 56 Nucleic Acid Extraction 58 Detection Assay 59 Electron Microscopy 59 Cell Culture 60 Immunodiagnostics 60 Nucleic Acid Amplification 62 Quantitation 67 Interpretation of Results 71 Controls for Sample Treatment 73 Controls for the Assay 73 Correctly Interpreting the Readout from a Real-Time PCR Instrument 76 A Note Regarding High Ct Values 77 The Issue of Infectivity 78 Other Methods Utilizing Nucleic Acid Amplification 81 Full References for Cited Standards 81 Further Reading 82 Chapter 5 Prevalence and Survival 83 Prevalence in Foods and Food Production Settings 83 Natural Persistence 86 Survival on Food Contact Surfaces 87 Survival in Water 88 Survival on Crops 88 Survival in Food 89 Sources of Quoted Data 91 Further Reading 94 Chapter 6 Control of Contamination 95 Elimination of Viruses from Food 95 Chemical Disinfection 96 Physical Disinfection 97 Heat 97 Non-Thermal Treatments 99 Gamma Irradiation 99 High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) 99 Ultraviolet Light (UV) 100 Depuration 100 Prevention of Contamination 101 Procedural Controls for Prevention of Contamination of Fresh and Ready-to-Eat Produce 101 HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) 104 Procedural Controls for Prevention of Virus Contamination of Shellfish 105 Vaccination 105 Sources of Quoted Data 106 Further Reading 107 Chapter 7 Future Challenges 109 Sources of Quoted Data 116 Further Reading 116 Index 000.