Crystal nucleation in biominerals This section focuses on understanding events occurring at the atomic scale during the formation of biominerals: crystal nucleation under biological conditions, the interaction between ions and nuclei with biomacromolecules, the role of amorphous precursor phases and the role of kinetics and thermodynamics in determining polymorph type, crystal nucleation and morphology. Interfaces at the nano scale This section focuses on high resolution imaging techniques to characterise crystal growth at the nanoscale under biological conditions and the mechanisms leading to the assembly of nano-crystalline building blocks into ordered polycrystalline structures. Interfaces at the micron scale This section discusses techniques that are suitable for bridging the gap between the nano- and micron scales for the characterisation of the structure of biominerals. Covering both synchrotron X-ray-based imaging and electron microscopy techniques that address different length scales. Connecting length scales After dedicating the previous sections to characterizing the structure of biominerals can be characterised at different length scales, this section puts it all together and discusses how the structure and formation of biominerals can be addressed using a range of techniques that can bridge all length scales - from the atomic to the micro-scales.