Preface and Acknowledgements List of Tables Abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Scope 1.3 A brief note on terminology 1.4 The corpus of texts 1.5 Previous scholarship 1.6 Eikones in Demotic and Latin 1.7 Eikones outside of Egypt 1.

8 Outline 1.9 Abbreviations and conventions2 Identity verification, biometrics, and documentality 2.1 Biometrics, identity, and eikones 2.2 Biometrics and anthropometry 2.3 Documentality 2.4 The role of social trust 2.5 Conclusions and implications3 Descriptive eikones 3.1 The Ptolemaic period: detailed physical description 3.

2 Characteristics in the Ptolemaic eikon 3.3 Absent characteristics and perception of physical traits 3.4 Comparison with artistic evidence 3.5 Demotic eikones 3.6 Conclusions4 Oulai 4.1 The Roman period: identification by oule 4.2 The format of the oule-eikon 4.3 Why not a scar? 4.

4 Location of oulai on the body 4.5 Moles 4.6 Unmarked and well-Marked 4.7 Descriptive eikones in the Roman period 4.8 Conclusions: oule as identifier5 Impairments and disabilities 5.1 Impairment as identification 5.2 Types, frequency, and distribution of impairments 5.3 Distribution by Occupation and Gender 5.

4 Impairments absent from the eikones 5.5 Impairment as an oule 5.6 Comparison with artistic depictions and physical remains 5.7 Implications of impairments in the eikones 6 Ethnonyms, ethnicity, and race 6.1 The inclusion of ethnonyms in the eikones 6.2 Ethnonyms, geonyms, and legal ethnic designations 6.3 Ethnonyms of unenslaved persons 6.4 Ethnonyms of enslaved persons 6.

5 Skin colour, race, and ethnicity 6.6 Conclusions7 Enslaved persons 7.1 Enslaved persons in the corpus of eikones 7.2 Terminology 7.3 Characteristics of the eikones of enslaved persons 7.4 Enslaved eikones and social alienation 7.5 Typology of enslaved eikones 7.6 Distribution of texts by type 7.

7 Conclusions8 Conclusions 8.1 Findings 8.2 Ptolemaic descriptive eikones in contrast with Roman oule-eikones 8.3 The eikones as a biometric system of documentary identification 8.4 Descriptions of enslaved persons 8.5 Observations on impairments 8.6 Race and ethnicity 8.7 Conclusions and future research Appendix Bibliography Index.