If the claim that in medieval universities 'the fundamental principle of libertas inquirendi (freedom of inquiry) was never itself in question' sounds implausible to you; if the claim that, for centuries prior to the Reformation, 'the confessional seal was sacrosanct; defendants had rights; all Christians were subject to fraternal correction; the pope was not above the law, [and] that it was never permissible to act against the dictates of one's conscience' sounds improbable to you; or if the claim that 'Martin Luther's appeal to conscience at Worms in 1521 was by no means revolutionary, but was instead very much in keeping with late medieval principles of Christian freedom, especially with respect to ecclesiastical authority' sounds preposterous to you, then you need to read this book.---Boyd Taylor Coolman, author of Knowledge, Love and Ecstasy in The Theology of Thomas Gallus A fascinating book that explores the tension between ecclesiastical authority and academic freedom, between the demands of conscience and bonum commune, and between personal conviction and institutional liability. Instead of treating the problem in abstract terms, Ian Levy gives the floor to the people involved in these conflicts. The book is surprising on every page: Not only did medieval theologians recognize the dilemma of this--supposedly modern--challenge, but also did they try to solve it intellectually. The reader is introduced to some of the great dramas of medieval theology, which cannot be separated from the biographies of those involved.---Thomas Pruegl, University of Vienna Levy has made an important contribution to our understanding of the ties between scholasticism and the beginning of reformation thought, showing how scholastics developed the concept of moral autonomy. He brings the reader into the arguments that were ongoing long before Luther, clearly and distinctly showing how the force of conscience evolved to become a powerful agent in realizing God's will in creation.---Stephen Lahey, University of Nebraska-Lincoln Seldom are Martin Luther and John Henry Newman presented as allies, but in this learned account of the understanding of conscience, Ian Levy shows that Luther at the Diet of Worms, "I am bound by the testimony of Scripture and my conscience", and John Henry Newman, in his Letter to the Duke of Norfolk, "conscience is the aboriginal Vicar of Christ" are inheritors of a common Christian tradition forged over centuries in the medieval west.

---Robert Louis Wilken, William R. Kenan Professor Emeritus of the History of Christianity at the University of Virginia.