Preface xv 1 Introduction 1 1.1. Role of Forest Mensuration in Forest Management, 2 1.2. Design and Planning of Inventories, 7 2 Principles of Measurement 13 2.1. Scales of Measurement, 14 2.2.

Units of Measurement, 16 2.3. Systems of Measurement, 16 2.4. Variables, 21 2.5. Precision, Accuracy, and Bias, 22 2.6.

Significant Digits, Rounding, and Classes, 23 2.7. Data Summary and Presentation, 26 2.8. Fundamental Measurements, 28 3 Basic Statistical Concepts 31 3.1. Sampling Frame, 31 3.2.

Descriptive Statistics, 35 3.3. Sampling Error, 45 3.4. Sample Size Determination, 50 3.5. Influence of Scalar Transformations and the Estimation of Totals, 52 3.6.

Regression Analysis, 53 4 Land Area Determination 61 4.1. Land Distance and Area Units, 62 4.2. Measuring Distances, 62 4.3. Measuring Area, 67 4.4.

Determination of Photo Scale, 69 4.5. Determination of Direction Using a Compass, 72 4.6. The U.S. Public Land Surveys, 75 4.7.

Global Navigation Satellite Systems, 77 4.8. Geographic Information Systems, 84 5 Remote Sensing 87 5.1. Types of Remotely Sensed Data, 87 5.2. Remote Sensing for Stratification, 103 6 Individual Tree Parameters 109 6.1.

Age, 109 6.2. Tree Diameters and Areas, 112 6.3. Height, 126 6.4. Form, 139 6.5.

Crown Parameters, 144 6.6. Regression and Allometric Approaches, 149 7 Determination of Tree Volume, Weight, and Biomass 155 7.1. Measurement of Individual Trees, 156 7.2. Allometric Equations for Volume, Weight, and Biomass, 175 7.3.

Volume and Biomass Distribution in Trees, 179 7.4. Other Methods of Estimating Tree Content, 185 7.5. Applications to Seedlings and Understory Vegetation, 192 7.6. Applications to Snags and Down Woody Material, 193 8 Measurement of Primary Forest Products 199 8.1.

Units of Measurement of Forest Products, 199 8.2. LOG Rules, 201 8.3. Board-Foot LOG Rules, 201 8.4. LOG Scaling, 207 8.5.

Scaling Stacked Volume, 212 8.6. Volume Unit Conversion, 213 8.7. Scaling by Weight, 216 9 Stand Parameters 221 9.1. Stand Age, 222 9.2.

Species Composition, 225 9.3. Diameter, 228 9.4. Height, 236 9.5. Volume, Weight, and Biomass, 240 9.6.

Crown and Canopy Measurements, 244 9.7. Understory and Regeneration, 248 9.8. Site Quality, 259 9.9. Density and Stocking, 268 9.10.

Use of Remote Sensing to Characterize Stand Parameters, 282 10 Fixed-Area Sampling Units 291 10.1. Tree-Centered Approach, 291 10.2. The Factor Concept, 293 10.3. Fixed-Area Plots, 295 10.4.

Stand Parameter Calculation, 298 10.5. Boundary Slopover, 303 10.6. Slope Correction, Borderline and Hidden Trees, 308 10.7. Selecting Appropriate Sampling Units, 308 11 Horizontal Point Sampling 311 11.1.

Horizontal Point Samples, 312 11.2. Instruments for Horizontal Point Samples, 317 11.3. Checking Questionable Trees, 327 11.4. Slope Correction, 329 11.5.

Leaning and Hidden Trees, 330 11.6. Stand Parameter Calculation, 331 11.7. Sample Size Determination, 336 11.8. Subsampling with HPS, 337 11.9.

Special-Purpose Modifications of HPS, 344 12 Other Sampling Units 345 12.1. Horizontal Line Sampling, 345 12.2. Vertical Point and Line Sampling, 349 12.3. Critical Height Sampling, 351 12.4.

Point and Line Intercept Sampling, 352 12.5. Distance-Based Sampling Units, 353 12.6. Sector Sampling, 356 13 Sampling Designs in Forest Inventories 359 13.1. Basic Considerations, 359 13.2.

Selective or Opportunistic Sampling, 365 13.3. Simple Random Sampling, 367 13.4. Systematic Sampling, 374 13.5. Cluster Sampling, 384 13.6.

Stratified Sampling, 389 13.7. Multistage Sampling, 395 13.8. Sampling with Covariates, 402 14 Inventory of Downed Dead Material Using Sampling with Varying Probability 429 14.1. Fixed-Area Plots, 430 14.2.

Line Intersect Sampling, 434 14.3. Angle Gauge Methods, 442 14.4. Perpendicular Distance Sampling, 451 14.5. Other Methods, 461 14.6.

Design Considerations and Selection of Methods, 463 15 Forest Structural Diversity 465 15.1. Forest Species Diversity, 466 15.2. Sampling for Forest Species Diversity, 480 15.3. Forest Size and Spatial Diversity, 483 15.4.

Sampling Forest Structures, 489 16 Measurement of Tree and Stand Growth 493 16.1. Individual Tree Growth, 494 16.2. Direct Measurement of Tree Growth, 498 16.3. Reconstructing Tree Growth, 503 16.4.

Stand and Forest Growth, 511 16.5. Measurement of Stand and Forest Growth and Yield, 515 16.6. Considerations for the Design and Maintenance of Permanent Sample Plot Systems, 533 16.7. Growth and Yield Models, 541 Appendix 557 Bibliography 575 Index 643.